PART SECONDSYNTAX

ORDER OF WORDS

Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of the ideas in a sentence.

As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the Predicate last. Thus,
Pausnis Lacedaemonius mgnus hom sed varius in omn genere vtae fuit (Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedmonian was a great man, but inconsistent in the whole course of his life.

NOTE.This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of.

There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.

In connected discourse the word most prominent in the speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.

This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).

The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words is illustrated in the following passages:
apud Xenophntem autem morins Crus mior haec dcit (Cat. M. 79), IN XENOPHON too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Crus quidem haec morins; ns, s placet, nostra videmus (id. 82), CYRUS, to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed; let US, if you please, consider our own case.
Crus quidem apud Xenophntem e sermne, quem morins habuit (id. 30), CYRUS, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on his death-bed.

NOTE.This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.

The first chapter of Csar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus: [p. 394]

GAUL, 243 in the widest sense, is divided 244 into three parts, 245 which are inhabited 246 (as follows): one 247 by the Belgians, another 248 by the Aquitani, the third by a people called in their own 249 language Celts, in ours Gauls. THESE 250 in their language, 251 institutions, and laws are all of them 252 different. The GAULS 253 (proper) are separated 254 from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, from the Belgians by the Marne and Seine. Of THESE 255 (TRIBES) the bravest of all 256 are the Belgians, for the reason that they live farthest 257 away [p. 395] from the CIVILIZATION and REFINEMENT of the Province, and because they are LEAST 258 of all of them subject to the visits of traders, 259 and to the (consequent) importation of such things as 260 tend to soften 261 their warlike spirit; and are also nearest 262 to the Germans, who live across the Rhine, 263 and with whom they are incessantly 264 at war. For the same reason the HELVETIANS, as well, are superior to all the other Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one partthe one which, as has been said, the Gauls (proper) occupyBEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine. Its general direction is towards the north. The BELGIANS begin at the extreme limits of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.

Gallia est omnis dvsa in parts trs, qurum nam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aqutn, tertiam qu ipsrum lingu Celtae, nostr Gall appellantur. H omns lingu, nstitts, lgibus inter s differunt. Galls ab Aqutns Garumna flmen, Belgs Mtrona et Squana dvidit. Hrum omnium fortissim sunt Belgae, proptere quod cult atque hmnitte prvinciae longissim absunt, minimque ad es merctrs saepe commeant atque ea quae ad effminands anims pertinent important, proximque sunt Germns, qu trns Rhnum incolunt, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. Qu d caus Helvti quoque reliqus Galls virtte praecdunt, quod fer cotdins proelis cum Germns contendunt, cum aut sus fnibus es prohibent, aut ips in erum fnibus bellum gerunt. Erum na pars, quam Galls obtinre dictum est, initium capit flmine Rhodan; contintur Garumn flmine, cean, fnibus Belgrum; attingit etiam ab Squans et Helvtis flmen Rhnum; vergit ad septentrins. Belgae ab extrms Galliae fnibus oriuntur: pertinent ad nferirem partem flminis Rhn; spectant in septentrinem et orientem slem. Aqutnia Garumn flmine ad Prnaes monts et eam partem cean quae est ad Hispniam pertinet; spectat inter occsum slis et septentrins.

The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it were, in a new one. [p. 396]

The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows:

In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes first:

1. Adjective and Noun:
omns homins decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Lcius Catilna nbil genere ntus fuit, mgn v et anim et corporis, sed ingeni mal prvque (Sall. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus. ²⁶⁵ ]

2. Word with modifying case:
quid magis Epamnndam, Thbnrum impertrem, quam victriae Thbnrum cnsulere decuit (Inv. 1.69), what should Epaminondas, commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the Thebans?
lacrim nihil citius rscit (id. 1.109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR.
nm fer laudis cupidus (De Or. 1.14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY (cf. Manil. 7, avid laudis, EAGER for glory).

Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong:
cum aliqu perturbtine (Off. 1.137), with SOME disturbance.
hc n praestmus (De Or. 1.32), in THIS one thing we excel.
cterae fer arts, the OTHER arts.

NOTE.This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the emphatic place:
causa aliqua (De Or. 1.250), some CASE.
stilus ille tuus (id. 1.257), that well-known STYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
Rmam quae apportta sunt (Verr. 4.121), what were carried to ROME (in contrast to what remained at Syracuse).

When sum is used as the Substantive verb ( 284. b), it regularly stands first, or at any rate before its subject:
est vir mgn pnre sontis (Off. 1.82), it is the duty of a great man to punish the guilty. [p. 397]

The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1) because the idea in it is emphatic; or (2) because the predication of the whole statement is emphatic; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic:
(1) dcbat idem Cotta (Off. 2.59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed to others' boasting).
idem fcit adulscns M. Antnius (id. 2.49), the same thing was DONE by Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dx just before.]
facis amc; (Lael. 9), you ACT kindly. [Cf. amc facis, you are very KIND (you act KINDLY).]
(2) prpnsior bengnits esse dbbit in calamitss nisi forte erunt dgn calamitte (Off. 2.62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortunate unless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their misfortune.
praesertim cum scrbat (Panaetius) (id. 3.8), especially when he DOES SAY (in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
(3) fuimus Tres, fuit lium (Aen. 2.325), we have CEASED to be Trojans, Troy is now no MORE.
loquor autem d commnibus amcitis (Off. 3.45), but I am SPEAKING NOW of common friendships.

Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places:
plrs solent esse causae (Off. 1.28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons.
qus msimus cvs, es Mrtis vs perculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maxims tibi omns grtis agimus (id. 33), we ALL render you the WARMEST thanks.
haec rs nus est propria Caesaris (id. 11), THIS exploit belongs to Csar ALONE.
obirgtins etiam nn numquam incidunt necessriae (Off. 1.136), OCCASIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.

Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus):
(1) rrum cpia verbrum cpiam gignit (De Or. 3.125), ABUNDANCE of MATTER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION.
(2) lgs supplici improbs afficiunt, dfendunt ac tuentur bons (Legg. 2.13), the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD they DEFEND and PROTECT.

NOTE.Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inartificial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, The women were all drowned, they saved the men.
nn igitur tilittem amcitia sed tilits amcitiam cnsecta est (Lael. 51), it is not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the parallel order.] (See also p. 395: longissim, minim, proxim.) [p. 398]

A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within the phrase (cf. a):
d commn hominum memori; (Tusc. 1.59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL memory of man.

A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis):
et superiect pavidae natrunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. 1.2.11).

NOTE.This is often joined with chiasmus: as,arma nndum expits ncta cruribus (id. 2.1.5).

Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance:
dictitbat s hortuls aliqus emere velle (Off. 3.58), he gave out that he wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliqus is less emphatic than emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortuls.]

The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may come in anywhere where it sounds well; but usually under cover of more emphatic words:
cnsul ego quaesv, cum vs mihi esstis in cnsili; (Rep. 3.28), as consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
falsum est id ttum (id. 2.28), that is all false.

Many expressions have acquired an invariable order:
rs pblica; populus Rmnus; honris caus; pce tant vir.

NOTE.These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, sentus populusque Rmnus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.

The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place:
[dxit] vnls quidem s horts nn habre (Off. 3.58), [said] that he did n't have any gardens for sale, to be sure.

Kindred words often come together (figra etymologica):
ita snsim sine sns aets senscit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without being perceived, man's life grows old.

Special Rules

The following are special rules of arrangement:

The negative precedes the word it especially affects; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. N.) [p. 399]

Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem, vr, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word; igitur usually second; n ... quidem include the emphatic word or words.

Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more words. So often crd, opnor, and in poetry sometimes precor.

(1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their nouns; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun and its adjective or limiting genitive:
quem ad modum; quam ob rem; mgn cum met; omnibus cum cpis; nll in r; (cf. 598. i).

In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun:
qus msimus cvs, es Mrtis vs perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom we have lost, etc.

Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the sentence:
cum vs mihi esstis in cnsili; (Rep. 3.28), when you attended me in counsel.

Structure of the Period

Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat.Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation among all its parts is carefully indicated.

In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to be observed:

In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not in a subordinate one:
Hannibal cum recnsuisset auxilia Gds profectus est (Liv. 21.21), when Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz. [p. 400]
Volsc exiguam spem in arms, ali undique absciss, cum tentssent, praeter ctera adversa, loc quoque inqu ad pgnam congress, inquire ad fugam, cum ab omn parte caederentur, ad precs certmine vers ddit impertre trditsque arms, sub iugum miss, cum singuls vestments, gnminiae cldisque pln dmittuntur (Liv. 4.10). [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subordinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a complete picture in one sentence.]

Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker; so, usually, cause before result; purpose, manner, and the like, before the act.

In cordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some antithesis indicated by the position of words.

A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure,the less important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles or of subordinate phrases:
quem ut barbar incendium effgisse vdrunt, tls minus misss interfcrunt (Nep. Alc. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM at long range and killed HIM.
celeriter cnfect negti, in hberna legins redxit (B. G. 6.3), the matter was soon finished, AND he led the legions, etc.

So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, is avoided unless a different case is required:
dolrem s nn potuer frangere occultb; (Phil. 12.21), if I cannot conquer the pain, I will hide IT. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]

The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,
quod scs nihil prdest, quod nescs multum obest (Or. 166), what you know is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.

NOTE.In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4.72) lays down the general rule that a clause should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.