FORMS OF THE VERB
The Three Stems
The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stem are formed
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
3. On the Supine stem are formed
83
The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the verb sum, be, to make
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make the Future Active Infinitive.
The Supine in -um and -. The Supine in -um combines with r to make the Future Passive Infinitive ( 203. a).
NOTE.The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive (as, amtus fore). For fore (futrum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see 569. 3. a.
[p. 78] VERB-ENDINGS
Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
1. The STEM (see 24). This is either the root or a modification or development of it.
2. The ENDING, consisting of
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see 163).
Thus in the verb voc-b-s, you were calling, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem voc-, which by the addition of the ending -bs becomes the imperfect tense vocbs; and this ending consists of the tense-sign b- and the personal ending (-s) of the second person singular.
The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for mood and tense combined with personal endings, are
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ACTIVE |
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PASSIVE |
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INDICATIVE |
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SUBJUNCTIVE |
INDICATIVE |
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SUBJUNCTIVE |
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PRESENT |
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PRESENT |
SING. |
1. -
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Vowel-Change: I,1 to ; II, to e; III, to ; IV, to i.
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-m |
-or |
Vowel-Change: as inActive. |
-r |
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2. -s
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-s |
-ris (-re) |
|
-ris (-re) |
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3. -t
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-t |
-tur |
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-tur |
PLUR. |
1. -mus
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-mus |
-mur |
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-mur |
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2. -tis
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-tis |
-min |
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-min |
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3. -nt
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-nt |
-ntur |
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-ntur |
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IMPERFECT |
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IMPERFECT |
SING. |
1. -ba-m
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-re-m |
-ba-r |
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-re-r |
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2. -b-s
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-r-s |
-b-ris (-re) |
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-r-ris (-re) |
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3. -ba-t
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-re-t |
-b-tur |
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-r-tur |
PLUR. |
1. -b-mus
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-r-mus |
-b-mur |
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-r-mur |
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2. -b-tis
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-r-tis |
-b-min |
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-r-min |
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3. -ba-nt
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-re-nt |
-ba-ntur |
|
-re-ntur |
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INDICATIVE |
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INDICATIVE |
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FUTURE |
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FUTURE |
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I, II
84 |
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III, IV
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I, II
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III, IV1 |
SING. |
1. -b-
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Vowel-Change: as indicated in italics; verbs in -i retainingi before these vowels. |
-a-m
|
-bo-r |
Vowel-Change: asin Active. |
-a-r
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2. -bi-s
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|
--s
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-be-ris (-re) |
|
--ris (-re) |
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3. -bi-t
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-e-t
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-bi-tur |
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--tur
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PLUR. |
1. -bi-mus
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|
--mus
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-bi-mur |
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--mur
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2. -bi-tis
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--tis
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-bi-min |
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--min
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3. -bu-nt
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-e-nt
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-bu-ntur |
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-e-ntur
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[p. 79]
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Active |
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Passive |
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INDICATIVE |
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SUBJUNCTIVE |
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INDICATIVE |
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SUBJUNCTIVE |
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PERFECT |
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PERFECT |
SING. |
1. -
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-eri-m
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-tus (-ta, -tum) |
sum |
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sim |
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2. -is-t
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-eri-s
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es |
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ss |
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3. -i-t
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-eri-t
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est |
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sit |
PLUR. |
1. -i-mus
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-eri-mus
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-t (-tae, -ta) |
sumus |
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smus |
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2. -is-tis
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-eri-tis
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estis |
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stis |
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3. -ru-nt (-re) |
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-eri-nt
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sunt |
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sint |
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PLUPERFECT |
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PLUPERFECT |
SING. |
1. -era-m
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-isse-m
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-tus(-ta, -tum) |
eram |
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essem |
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2. -er-s
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-iss-s
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ers |
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esss |
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3. -era-t
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-isse-t
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erat |
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esset |
PLUR. |
1. -er-mus
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-iss-mus
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-t (-tae, -ta) |
ermus |
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essmus |
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2. -er-tis
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-iss-tis
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ertis |
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esstis |
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3. -era-nt
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-isse-nt
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erant |
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essent |
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FUTURE PERFECT |
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FUTURE PERFECT |
SING. |
1. -er-
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-tus (-ta, -tum) |
er |
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2. -eri-s
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eris |
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3. -eri-t
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erit |
PLUR. |
1. -eri-mus
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-t (-tae, -ta) |
erimus |
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2. -eri-tis
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eritis |
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3. -eri-nt
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erunt |
IMPERATIVE |
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PRESENT |
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PRESENT |
SING. 2. ---- |
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PLUR. 2. -te
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SING. 2. -re
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PLUR. 2. -min
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FUTURE |
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FUTURE |
2. -t
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2. -tte
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2. -tor
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3. -t
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3. -nt
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3. -tor
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3. -ntor
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For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of the verb is here added.
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INFINITIVE |
PRES. |
-re (Pres. stem) |
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I, II, IV. |
-r; III. -
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PERF. |
-isse (Perf. stem) |
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-tus (-ta, -tum) esse
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FUT. |
-trus (-a, -um) esse
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-tum r |
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PARTICIPLES |
PRES. |
-ns, -ntis
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PERF. |
-tus, -ta, -tum
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FUT. |
-trus, -a, -um
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GER. |
-ndus, -nda, -ndum
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GERUND |
SUPINE |
-nd, -nd, -ndum, -nd
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-tum, -t
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[p. 80]
A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings -m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, ame-t (for older am-t), habe-t (for hab-t), mone-nt, mone-ntur.
The tenses of the Present System are made from the Present Stem as follows:
85
In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to the present stem. Thus,present stem ar-: ar-s, ar-mus, ar-tis.
In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bs, etc. (originally a complete verb) is added to the present stem: as, ar-bam, ar-bs, ar-bmus.
NOTE.The form bam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU (cf. fu, futrus, φύω, English be, been), and meant I was. This was added to a complete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vid-bam. The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms ( 167).
In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar suffix, -b, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem: as, ar-b, ar-bis, mon-b.
NOTE.The form b was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. N.
In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the terminations -am, -s, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-s, audi-am, audi-s) are really subjunctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally long throughout. For shortening, see 167.
In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a form of the present stem ending in - or -, which was shortened in certain forms ( 167). Thus, ame-m, am-s, teg-mus, tega-nt.
NOTE 1.The vowel (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am--s) is an inherited subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e ( 174. 1) lengthened. The of the other conjugations (mone--s, reg--s, audi--s) is of uncertain origin.
NOTE 2.In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -s, etc. occurs: as, sim, ss, smus, velim, vels, etc. This is an old optative, being a form of the IndoEuropean optative mood-sign y- (cf. siem, sis, siet, 170. b. N.). The vowel has been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -rs, etc. is added to the present stem: as, am-rem, am-rs, mon-rem, tege-rem, aud-rem.
NOTE.The stem element -r- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf. es-se-m, es-s-s) changed to r between two vowels ( 15. 4). The is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e). [p. 81]
The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are made from the Perfect Stem as follows:
In the Perfect Indicative the endings -, -ist, etc. are added directly to the perfect stem: as, amv-ist, tx-istis.
In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -ers, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amv-eram, monu-ers, tx-erat.
NOTE.This seems to represent an older -is-m etc. formed on the analogy of the Future Perfect in -er (older -is-: see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect of sum) in comparison with er (future of sum).
In the Future Perfect the suffix -er, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amv-er, monu-eris, tx-erit.
NOTE.This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending probably in -is-. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of the perfect indicative (vd-is-t), in the perfect infinitive (vd-is-se), and in the pluperfect subjunctive (vd-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem vowel.
In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amv-erim, monu-eris, tx-erit.
NOTE.This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older -is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign shortened (see 168. e. N.2). Forms in -s, -t, -mus, -tis, are sometimes found. The shortening in -s, -mus, -tis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isss, etc. is added to the perfect stem: as, amv-issem, monu-isss, tx-isset.
NOTE.Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indicative in -is-m (later -er-am, see b), and influenced by essem (earlier essm) in its relation to eram (earlier esm).
86
The Verb Sum
The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its importance for the inflection of other verbs. [p. 82]
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse, Perfect Indicative fu, Future Participle futrus.
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PRESENT STEM es-
|
PERFECT STEM fu-
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SUPINE STEM fut-
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INDICATIVE |
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SUBJUNCTIVE |
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PRESENT |
SING. |
1. sum, I am
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sim
87 |
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2. s, thou art (you are) |
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ss |
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3. est, he (she, it) is
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sit |
PLUR. |
1. sumus, we are
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smus |
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2. estis, you are
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stis |
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3. sunt, they are
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sint |
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IMPERFECT |
SING. |
1. eram, I was
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essem |
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2. ers, you were
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esss |
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3. erat, he (she, it) was
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esset |
PLUR. |
1. ermus, we were
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essmus |
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2. ertis, you were
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esstis |
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3. erant, they were
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essent |
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FUTURE |
SING. |
1. er, I shall be
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2. eris, you will be
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3. erit, he will be
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PLUR. |
1. erimus, we shall be
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2. eritis, you will be
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3. erunt, they will be
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PERFECT |
SING. |
1. fu, I was (have been) |
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fuerim |
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2. fuist, you were
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fueris |
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3. fuit, he was
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fuerit |
PLUR. |
1. fuimus, we were
|
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fuerimus |
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2. fuistis, you were
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|
fueritis |
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3. furunt, fure, they were
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fuerint |
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PLUPERFECT |
SING. |
1. fueram, I had been
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fuissem |
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2. fuers, you had been
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fuisss |
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3. fuerat, he had been
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fuisset |
[p. 83]
PLUR. |
1. fuermus, we had been
|
fuissmus |
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2. fuertis, you had been
|
fuisstis |
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3. fuerant, they had been
|
fuissent |
FUTURE PERFECT |
SING. |
1. fuer, I shall have been
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PLUR. |
1. fuerimus, we shall have been
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2. fueris, you will have been
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2. fueritis, you will have been
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3. fuerit, he will have been
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3. fuerint, they will have been
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IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT |
SING. |
2. s, be thou
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PLUR. |
2. este, be ye
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FUTURE |
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2. est, thou shalt be
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2. estte, ye shall be
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3. est, he shall be
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3. sunt, they shall be
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INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
esse, to be
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PERFECT |
fuisse, to have been
|
FUTURE |
futrus esse or fore, to be about to be
|
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PARTICIPLE |
FUTURE |
futrus, -a, -um, about to be
|
For essem, esss, etc., forem, fors, foret, forent, are often used; so fore for futrus esse.
The Present Participle, which would regularly be sns,
88 appears in the adjective n-sns, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sns, prae-sns. The simple form ns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms ns, being; entia, things which are.
NOTE.Old forms are:Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoative present, see 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, sis, siet, sient; fuam, fus, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fvimus; Pluperfect, fvisset.
The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see 15. 4), and in many forms is shortened to S. Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, the Sanskrit sym corresponding to the Latin sim (siem):
|
SANSKRIT |
GREEK |
|
LATIN |
LITHUANIAN |
as-mi |
sym (optative) |
ἔμμι (old form) |
s-um |
sim (siem) |
es-mi |
as-i
|
sys |
ἐσσί (old form) |
es |
ss (sis) |
es-i |
as-ti |
syt |
ἐστί |
es-t |
sit (siet) |
es-ti |
s-mas |
syma |
ἐσμέν |
s-umus |
smus |
es-me |
s-tha |
syta |
ἐστέ |
es-tis |
stis |
es-te |
s-anti |
syus |
ἐντί (old form) |
s-unt |
sint (sient) |
es-ti |
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek ἔφυ, and with Nhe English be. [p. 84]
The Four Conjugations
[171] Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active:
CONJUGATION |
INFINITIVE ENDING |
STEM |
First |
-re (amre) |
|
Second |
-re (monre) |
|
Third |
-re (regre) |
|
Fourth |
-re (audre) |
|
The Principal Parts
The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems which determine its conjugation throughout, are
1. The Present Indicative (as, am) 2. The Present Infinitive (as, am-re) showing the Present Stem.
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amv-), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amt-um), or, if that form is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amt-rus), showing the Supine Stem.
The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in the following:
First Conjugation:
Active, am, amre, amv, amtum, love.
Passive, amor, amr, amtus.
Present Stem am-, Perfect Stem amv-, Supine Stem amt-.
Second Conjugation:
Active, dle, dlre, dlv, dltum, blot out.
Passive, dleor, dlr, dltus.
Present Stem dl-, Perfect Stem dlv-, Supine Stem dlt-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic - rarely appears in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore:
Active, mone, monre, monu, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, monr, monitus.
Present Stem mon-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-. [p. 85]
Third Conjugation:
Active, teg, tegre, tx, tctum, cover.
Passive, tegor, teg, tctus.
Present Stem teg-, Perfect Stem tx-, Supine Stem tct-.
Fourth Conjugation:
Active, audi, audre, audv, audtum, hear.
Passive, audior, audr, audtus.
Present Stem aud-, Perfect Stem audv-, Supine Stem audt-.
In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or more different conjugations (cf. 189):
1, 2, dom, domre, domu, domitum, subdue.
2, 3, mane, manre, mns, mnsum, remain.
3, 4, pet, petre, petv, pettum, seek.
4, 3, vinci, vincre, vnx, vnctum, bind.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present sten conforms.
Present Stem
The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main classes of verbs:
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (e/o, in Latin i/u) appeared between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for leg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for leg-o-nti).
89
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root: as, es-t, es-tis (root ES)
90 , d-mus (d, root DA), fer-t (fer, root FER).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into one of the four regular conjugations. Even the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two classes:
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the personal endings.These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed in various ways ( 176), but always ends in a short vowel e/o (Latin i/u). Examples are teg (stem (tege/o-), sternimus (stem (sterne/o-) for ster-no-mos, plectunt (stem (plecte/o-) for plec-to-nti. So nsc (stem (gnsce/o-) for gn-sc-. Verbs like nsc became the type for a large number of verbs in -sc, called inceptives ( 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix ye/o-, which already contained the thematic vowel e/o.Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except u) came in contact with the suffix ye/o- suffered contraction so as to present a long vowel -, -, -, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e/o disappeared. These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and [p. 86]
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact with the suffix ye/o- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, and some have forms of both. Examples are:(cn) spici (-spicre) for speky; veni (venre) for (g) vem-y; cupi, cupre, but cupv; orior, ortur, but orr. Note, however, plu (pluere) for plu-y; and hence, by analogy, acu (acuere) for acu-y.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which is practically represented in 175, 176.
The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the Present Infinitive:
am-re, stem am-; mon-re, stem mon-; teg-re, stem teg-; aud-re, stem aud-.
The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regular verbs in one of the following ways:
In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (-, -, -) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voc-re (VOC), mon-re (MEN, cf. memin), sop-re (SOP).
91
NOTE.Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from nounstems on the pattern of older formations (see 174).
In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel e/o
92 to the root. In Latin this e/o usually appears as i/u, but e is preserved in some forms. Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG); but teg-ris (teg-re), al-ris.
1. The stem-vowel e/o (i/u) may be preceded by n, t, or sc:
93 as, tem-ni-tis, tem-nu-nt, tem-n-ris (TEM); plec-ti-s (PLEC); cr-sci-tis (CR).
2. Verbs in -i of the Third Conjugation (as, capi, capre) show in some forms an i before the final vowel of the stem: as, cap-i-unt (CAP), fug-i-unt (FUG).
The root may be changed
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication): as, gi-gn-e-re (GEN).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n): as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG). [p. 87]
In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u-, as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu--re (aestu-s); cf. acu, acuere.
94
NOTE 1.A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re, fer-t; es-se; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.
NOTE 2.In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stemvowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (MIT).
Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem is generally identical with the root: as, da-mus (DA), fl-mus (stem fl-, root form unknown).
95 But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
NOTE.Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (STA, cf. stre).
Perfect Stem
The Perfect Stem is formed as follows:
The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem: as, voc-v-, aud-v-; or to the root: as, son-u- (son-re, root SON), mon-u- (mon-re, MON treated as a root).
96
NOTE.In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as, str-v- (stern, STAR), spr-v- (spern, SPAR).
The suffix s is added to the root: as, carp-s- (CARP), tx- (for tg-s-, TEG).
97
NOTE.The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: as, fnx- (FIG, present stem fing-), snx- (SAC, present stem sanc-).
The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonantgenerally with , sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid- (cad, CAD), to-tond- (tonde, TOND).
NOTE.In fid- (for fe-fid-, find-), scid- (for sci-scid-, scind), the reduplication has been lost, leaving merely the root.
The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change: as, lg- (lg-), m- (m-), vd- (vd-e-), fg- (fg-i-), g- (g-).
Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in the present tense: as, vert- (vert-), solv- (solv-).
Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem: as, pet-v- (as if from peti-, pet-re, PET).
[p. 88]Supine Stem
The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s)
To the present stem: as, am-t-um, dl-t-um, aud-t-um.
To the root, with or without : as, cap-t-um (capi, CAP), moni-t-um (mone, MON used as root), cs-um (for cad-t-um, CAD), lc-t-um (LEG).
NOTE 1.By phonetic change dt and tt become s (dfnsum, versum for d-fendt-um, vert-t-um); bt becomes pt (scrp-t-um for scrb-t-um); gt becomes ct (rc-t-um for reg-t-um).
98
NOTE 2.The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: as, tnc-t-um (ting, TIG), tn-s-um for tend-t-um (ten-d-, TEN).
NOTE 3.The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem: as, pet-t-um (as if from peti-, pet-re, PET).
NOTE 4.A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d and t: as, fal-s-um (fall), pul-s-um (pell).
Forms of Conjugation
[179] The forms of the several conjugations from which, by adding the verb-endings in 166, all the moods and tenses can be made are as follows:
[a]
The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem:
99 as, am-re; with a few whose root ends in a (for, f-r; fl, fl-re; n, n-re; st, st-re).
1. The stem-vowel - is lost before -: as, am = am-(y); and in the present subjunctive it is changed to : as, am-s, am-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present stem: as, am-v-, am-t-um. For exceptions, see 209. a.
[b]
The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem: as, mon-re; with a few whose root ends in ; as, fle-, fl-re; ne-, n-re; re-or, r-r (cf. 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive is added to the verb-stem: as, mone--s, mone--mus (cf. 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t, to the present stem: as, dl-v-, dl-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in : as, mon-u-, mon-t-um. For lists, see 210. [p. 89]
[c]
The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see 197) which add - to the root to form the present stem: as, tegre, cap-re; with a few whose root ends in e: as, se-r-re for se-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. stum).
1. The stem-vowel is regularly lost before -, and becomes u
100 before -nt and before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as, teg-, tegi-t, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes : as, tegbam, teg-bs, etc.; in the future, : as, teg-s (except in the first person singular, tega-m, tega-r); in the present subjunctive, : as, teg-s.
Verbs in -i lose the i before a consonant and also before , , and (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). Thus,capi-at, capi-unt, capi-bat, capi-s, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it (not capi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjugation. See lists, 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, but from the root.
[d]
The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem: as, aud-re.
101 In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem: as, aud-v-, audt-um.
102 Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive: as, audi-unt, audi-bat, audi-tis, audi-at, the i being regularly short before a vowel.
[e]
The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the same as the present stem: as, am, mon, teg, aud. But verbs in -i of the third conjugation omit i: as, cap (not capie).
[f]
The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regularly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in 166) to the perfect stem: as, amv-, amv-eram, amv-er, amv-erim, amv-issem, amv-isse.
[g]
The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse: as, perfect amtus sum; pluperfect amtus eram, etc. [p. 90]
Synopsis of the Verb
The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb arranged according to the three stems ( 164). Am, a regular verb of the first conjugation, is taken as a type. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, am, amre, amv, amtum. Passive, amor, amr, amtus sum.
PRESENT STEM am-
|
|
PERFECT STEM amv-
|
SUPINE STEM amt-
|
|
ACTIVE |
|
PASSIVE |
|
|
Present stem, am-
|
|
|
INDICATIVE |
PRES. |
am |
|
amo-r
|
IMPERF. |
am-bam |
|
am-bar |
FUT. |
am-b |
|
am-bor |
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRES. |
ame-m |
|
ame-r |
IMPERF. |
am-rem |
|
am-rer |
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRES. |
am |
|
am-re |
FUT. |
am-t |
|
am-tor |
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRES. |
am-re |
|
am-r |
|
|
PARTICIPLE |
PRES. |
am-ns |
|
GERUNDIVE ama-ndus
|
GERUND |
ama-nd |
Perfect stem, amv-
|
|
|
Supine stem, amt-
|
|
|
INDICATIVE |
PERF. |
amv- |
|
amt-us sum |
PLUPERF. |
amv-eram |
|
amt-us eram |
FUT. PERF. |
amv-er |
|
amt-us er |
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PERF. |
amv-erim |
|
amt-us sim |
PLUPERF. |
amv-issem |
|
amt-us essem |
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PERF. |
amv-isse |
|
|
Supine stem, amt-
|
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PERF. |
|
|
amt-us esse |
FUT. |
amt-rus esse |
|
amt-um r |
|
|
PARTICIPLE |
FUT. |
amt-rus |
|
PERF. amt-us
|
SUPINE |
amt-um |
amt- |
[p. 91]
Peculiarities of Conjugation
In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
Perfects in -v, -v, -v, often contract the two vowels into , , , respectively: as, amsse for amvisse; amrim for amverim; amssem for amvissem; cnsurat for cnsuverat; flstis for flvistis; nsse for nvisse. So in perfects in -v, where the v is a part of the present stem: as, commrat for commverat.
NOTE.The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amv) is never contracted, the third very rarely.
Perfects in -v regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels except before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect:
audieram for audveram; audsse for audvisse; audst for audvist; abiit for abvit; abirunt for abvrunt.
NOTE 1.The forms sris, srit, srtis, srint, for sveris etc. (from sver or sverim), are archaic.
NOTE 2.In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner, when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dxt for dxist (x = cs); trxe for trxisse; vst for vsist; vxet for vxisset; rpsmus for rpsissmus; dcsse for dcessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
Four verbs,dc, dc, faci, fer,with their compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making dc, dc, fc, fr; but compounds in -fici retain it, as, cnfice.
NOTE.The imperative forms dce, dce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
For the imperative of sci, the future form sct is always used in the singular, and sctte usually in the plural.
The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry:
1. In the fourth conjugation, -bam, -b, for -ibam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in e, go ( 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and vol and their compounds ( 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -s: as, faxim, fax, iuss, recps (= fcerim etc.); ausim (= ausus sim).
4. In the passive infinitive, -ier: as, vocrier for vocr; agier for ag.
5. A form in -ss, -ssere is found used as a future perfect: as, amssis. from am; levss, from lev; impetrssere, from impetr; idicssit, from idic (cf. 263. 2. b. N.). [p. 92]
FIRST CONJUGATION (-STEMS)ACTIVE VOICE
The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in a-. The verb am, love, is conjugated as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative am, Present Infinitive amre, Perfect Indicative amv, Supine amtum.
PRESENT STEM am-
|
PERFECT STEM amv-
|
SUPINE STEM amt-
|
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
PRESENT |
am,
103 I love, am loving, do love
|
|
amem
104 |
ams, thou lovest (you love) |
|
ams |
amat, he (she, it) loves
|
|
amet |
ammus, we love
|
|
ammus |
amtis, you love
|
|
amtis |
amant, they love
|
|
ament |
|
IMPERFECT |
ambam, I loved, was loving, did love
|
|
amrem |
ambs, you loved
|
|
amrs |
ambat, he loved
|
|
amret |
ambmus, we loved
|
|
amrmus |
ambtis, you loved
|
|
amrtis |
ambant, they loved
|
|
amrent |
|
FUTURE |
amb, I shall love
|
ambis, you will love
|
ambit, he will love
|
ambimus, we shall love
|
ambitis, you will love
|
ambunt, they will love
| [p. 93]
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
PERFECT |
amv, I loved, have loved
|
|
amverim |
amvist, you loved
|
|
amveris |
amvit, he loved
|
|
amverit |
amvimus, we loved
|
|
amverimus |
amvistis, you loved
|
|
amveritis |
amvrunt (-re), they loved
|
|
amverint |
|
PLUPERFECT |
amveram, I had loved
|
|
amvissem |
amvers, you had loved
|
|
amvisss |
amverat, he had loved
|
|
amvisset |
amvermus, we had loved
|
|
amvissmus |
amvertis, you had loved
|
|
amvisstis |
amverant, they had loved
|
|
amvissent |
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
Singular |
|
Plural |
amver, I shall have loved
|
|
amverimus, we shall have loved
|
amveris, you will have loved
|
|
amveritis, you will have loved
|
amverit, he will have loved
|
|
amverint, they will have loved
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT am, love thou
|
|
amte, love ye
|
FUTURE amt, thou shalt love
|
|
amtte, ye shall love
|
amt, he shall love
|
|
amant, they shall love
|
|
INFINITIVE |
|
PRESENT amre, to love
|
|
PERFECT amvisse or amsse, to have loved
|
|
FUTURE amtrus esse, to be about to love
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
|
PRESENT amns, -antis, loving
|
|
FUTURE amtrus, -a, -um, about to love
|
|
GERUND |
GENITIVE amand, of loving
|
|
ACCUSATIVE amandum, loving
|
DATIVE amand, for loving
|
|
ABLATIVE amand, by loving
|
|
SUPINE |
|
amtum, to love
|
amt, to love
|
[p. 94]
FIRST CONJUGATION (-STEMS)PASSIVE VOICE
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amr, Perfect Indicative amtus sum.
105
PRESENT STEM am-
|
|
SUPINE STEM amt-
|
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
PRESENT |
amor,2 I am loved, being loved
106 |
|
amer
107 |
amris (-re), you are loved
|
|
amris (-re) |
amtur, he is loved
|
|
amtur |
ammur, we are loved
|
|
ammur |
ammin, you are loved
|
|
ammin |
amantur, they are loved
|
|
amentur |
|
IMPERFECT |
ambar, I was loved, being loved
|
|
amrer |
ambris (-re), you were loved
|
|
amrris (-re) |
ambtur, he was loved
|
|
amrtur |
ambmur, we were loved
|
|
amrmur |
ambmin, you were loved
|
|
amrmin |
ambantur, they were loved
|
|
amrentur |
|
FUTURE |
ambor, I shall be loved
|
amberis (-re), you will be loved
|
ambitur, he will be loved
|
ambimur, we shall be loved
|
ambimin, you will be loved
|
ambuntur, they will be loved | [p. 95]
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
PERFECT |
amtus sum,
108 I was loved
|
|
amtus sim1 |
amtus es, you were loved
|
|
amtus ss |
amtus est, he was loved
|
|
amtus sit |
amt sumus, we were loved
|
|
amt smus |
amt estis, you were loved
|
|
amt stis |
amt sunt, they were loved
|
|
amt sint |
|
PLUPERFECT |
amtus eram,1 I had been loved
|
|
amtus essem1 |
amtus ers, you had been loved
|
|
amtus esss |
amtus erat, he had been loved
|
|
amtus esset |
amt ermus, we had been loved
|
|
amt essmus |
amt ertis, you had been loved
|
|
amt esstis |
amt erant, they had been loved
|
|
amt essent |
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
Singular |
|
Plural |
amtus er,1 I shall have been loved
|
|
amt erimus, we shall have, etc. |
amtus eris, you will have, etc. |
|
amt eritis, you will have, etc. |
amtus erit, he will have, etc. |
|
amt erunt, they will have, etc. |
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT amre, be thou loved
|
|
ammin, be ye loved
|
FUTURE amtor, thou shalt be loved
|
|
----- |
amtor, he shall be loved
|
|
amantor, they shall be loved
|
|
INFINITIVE |
|
PRESENT amr, to be loved
|
|
PERFECT amtus esse, to have been loved
|
|
FUTURE amtum r, to be about to be loved
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PERFECT |
amtus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved) |
FUTURE (GERUNDIVE) |
amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely) |
[p. 96]
SECOND CONJUGATION (-STEMS)
The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in -. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, mone, monre, monu, monitum; Passive, moneor, monr, monitus sum.
PRESENT STEM mon-
|
PERFECT STEM monu-
|
SUPINE STEM monit-
|
[p. 97]
|
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
|
Singular |
Plural |
PRESENT |
mon |
monte |
|
PRESENT |
monre |
monmin |
FUTURE |
mont |
montte |
|
FUTURE |
montor |
----- |
|
mont |
monent |
|
|
montor |
monentor |
|
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
monre |
|
|
monr |
PERFECT |
monuisse |
|
|
monitus esse |
FUTURE |
monitrus esse |
|
|
monitum r |
|
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
monns, -entis
|
|
PERFECT |
monitus, -a, -um
|
FUTURE |
monitrus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUNDIVE |
monendus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUND |
|
SUPINE |
monend, -d, -dum, -d
|
|
monitum, monit
|
[p. 98]
THIRD CONJUGATION (-STEMS)
The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see 197) which add - to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends in -. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, teg, tegre, tx, tctum; Passive, tegor, teg, tctus sum.
PRESENT STEM tege-
|
PERFECT STEM tx-
113 |
SUPINE STEM tct-
|
ACTIVE VOICE |
|
PASSIVE VOICE |
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
|
PRESENT |
teg,2 I cover
|
tegam2 |
tegor2 |
tegar2 |
tegis, you cover
|
tegs |
tegeris (-re) |
tegris (-re) |
tegit, he covers
|
tegat |
tegitur |
tegtur |
tegimus |
tegmus |
tegimur |
tegmur |
tegitis |
tegtis |
tegimin |
tegmin |
tegunt |
tegant |
teguntur |
tegantur |
IMPERFECT |
|
IMPERFECT |
tegbam |
tegerem |
tegbar |
tegerer |
tegbs |
tegers |
tegbris (-re) |
tegerris (-re) |
tegbat |
tegeret |
tegbtur |
tegertur |
tegbmus |
tegermus |
tegbmur |
tegermur |
tegbtis |
tegertis |
tegbmin |
tegermin |
tegbant |
tegerent |
tegbantur |
tegerentur |
FUTURE |
|
FUTURE |
tegam2 |
|
tegar2 |
tegs |
|
tegris (-re) |
teget |
|
tegtur |
tegemus |
|
tegemur |
tegtis |
|
tegmin |
tegent |
|
tegentur
114 |
[p. 99]
|
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
Singular |
Plural |
PRESENT |
tege |
tegite |
|
tegere |
tegimin |
FUTURE |
tegit |
tegitte |
|
tegitor |
------ |
|
tegit |
tegunt |
|
tegitor |
teguntor |
|
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
tegere |
|
|
teg |
PERFECT |
txisse |
|
|
tctus esse |
FUTURE |
tctrus esse |
|
tctum r |
|
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
tegns, -entis
|
|
PERFECT |
tctus, -a, -um
|
FUTURE |
tctrus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUNDIVE |
tegendus (-undus) |
|
GERUND |
|
SUPINE |
tegend, -d, -dum, -d
|
|
|
tctum, tct
|
[p. 100]
FOURTH CONJUGATION (-STEMS)
The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add - to the root to form the present stem. PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, audi, audre, audv, audtum; Passive, audior, audr, audtus sum.
PRESENT STEM aud-
|
PERFECT STEM audv-
|
SUPINE STEM audt-
|
ACTIVE VOICE |
|
PASSIVE VOICE |
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
|
PRESENT |
audi, I hear
|
audiam1 |
audior |
audiar1 |
auds, you hear
|
audis |
audris (-re) |
audiris (-re) |
audit, he hears
|
audiat |
audtur |
auditur |
audmus |
audimus |
audmur |
audimur |
audtis |
auditis |
audmin |
audimin |
audiunt |
audiant |
audiuntur |
audiantur |
IMPERFECT |
|
IMPERFECT |
audibam1 |
audrem |
audibar1 |
audrer |
audibs |
audrs |
audibris (-re) |
audrris (-re) |
audibat |
audret |
audibtur |
audrtur |
audibmus |
audrmus |
audibmur |
audrmur |
audibtis |
audrtis |
audibmin |
audrmin |
audibant |
audrent |
audibantur |
audrentur |
FUTURE |
|
FUTURE |
audiam1 |
|
audiar1 |
audis |
|
audiris (-re) |
audiet |
|
auditur |
audimus |
|
audimur |
auditis |
|
audimin |
audient |
|
audientur
116 |
[p. 101]
|
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
Singular |
Plural |
PRESENT |
aud |
audte |
|
audre |
audmin |
FUTURE |
audt |
audtte |
|
audtor |
------ |
|
audt |
audiunt |
|
audtor |
audiuntor |
|
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
audre |
|
|
audr |
PERFECT |
audvisse |
|
|
audtus esse |
FUTURE |
audtrus esse |
|
audtum r |
|
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
audins, -ientis
|
|
PERFECT |
audtus, -a, -um
|
FUTURE |
audtrus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUNDIVE |
audiendus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUND |
|
SUPINE |
audiend, -d, -dum, -d
|
audtum, audt
|
[p. 102]
VERBS IN -i OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -i have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the i of the stem before a consonant and also before , , and (except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).
118 Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capi, capre, cp, captum; Passive, capior, cap, captus sum.
PRESENT STEM capie- (cape-) |
PERFECT STEM cp-
|
SUPINE STEM capt-
|
|
ACTIVE VOICE |
|
PASSIVE VOICE |
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
PRESENT |
|
|
PRESENT |
capi, I take
|
|
capiam |
capior |
|
capiar |
capis, you take
|
|
capis |
caperis (-re) |
|
capiris (-re) |
capit, he takes
|
|
capiat |
capitur |
|
capitur |
capimus |
|
capimus |
capimur |
|
capimur |
capitis |
|
capitis |
capimin |
|
capimin |
capiunt |
|
capiant |
capiuntur |
|
capiantur |
|
IMPERFECT |
|
|
IMPERFECT |
capibam |
|
caperem |
capibar |
|
caperer |
|
FUTURE |
|
|
FUTURE |
capiam |
|
|
capiar |
capis |
|
|
capiris (-re) |
capiet, etc. |
|
|
capitur, etc. |
|
PERFECT |
|
|
PERFECT |
cp |
|
cperim |
captus sum |
|
captus sim |
|
PLUPERFECT |
|
|
PLUPERFECT |
cperam |
|
cpissem |
captus eram |
|
captus essem |
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
|
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
cper |
|
|
captus er |
[p. 103]
|
Active Voice |
|
|
|
Passive Voice |
|
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
|
PRESENT |
|
|
|
PRESENT |
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
cape |
|
capite |
|
capere |
|
capimini |
|
FUTURE |
|
|
|
FUTURE |
capit |
|
capitte |
|
capitor |
|
------ |
capit |
|
capiunto |
|
capitor |
|
capiuntor |
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
capere |
|
cap |
PERFECT |
cpisse |
|
captus esse |
FUTURE |
captrus esse |
|
captum r |
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
capins, -ientis
|
|
PERFECT |
captus, -a, -um
|
FUTURE |
captrus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUNDIVE |
capiendus, -a, -um
|
|
GERUND |
SUPINE |
capiend, -d, -dum, -d
|
|
captum, -t
|
Parallel Forms
Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic use:
lav, lavre or lavre, wash (see 211. e).
scate, scatre or scatre, gush forth.
ldific, -re, or ldificor, -r, mock.
fulg, fulgre, or fulge, fulgre, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, with an active or reflexive signification:
PRINCIPAL PARTS |
First conjugation: mror, mrr, mrtus, admire.
|
|
Second conjugation: vereor, verr, veritus, fear.
|
|
Third conjugation: sequor, sequ, sectus, follow.
|
|
Fourth conjugation: partior, partr, parttus, share.
|
[p. 104]
|
|
|
INDICATIVE |
PRES. |
mror |
vereor |
|
sequor |
partior |
|
mrris (-re) |
verris (-re) |
|
sequeris (-re) |
partris (-re) |
|
mrtur |
vertur |
|
sequitur |
parttur |
|
mrmur |
vermur |
|
sequimur |
partmur |
|
mrmin |
vermin |
|
sequimin |
partmin |
|
mrantur |
verentur |
|
sequuntur |
partiuntur |
IMPF. |
mrbar |
verbar |
|
sequbar |
partibar |
FUT. |
mrbor |
verbor |
|
sequar |
partiar |
PERF. |
mrtus sum |
veritus sum |
|
sectus sum |
parttus sum |
PLUP. |
mrtus eram |
veritus eram |
|
sectus eram |
parttus eram |
F. P. |
mrtus er |
veritus er |
|
sectus er |
parttus er |
|
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRES. |
mrer |
verear |
|
sequar |
partiar |
IMPF. |
mrrer |
verrer |
|
sequerer |
partrer |
PERF. |
mrtus sim |
veritus sim |
|
sectus sim |
parttus sim |
PLUP. |
mrtus essem |
veritus essem |
|
sectus essem |
parttus essem |
|
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRES. |
mrre |
verre |
|
sequere |
partre |
FUT. |
mrtor |
vertor |
|
sequitor |
parttor |
|
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRES. |
mrr |
verr |
|
sequ |
partr |
PERF. |
mrtus esse |
veritus esse |
sectus esse |
parttus esse |
FUT. |
mrtrus esse |
veritrus esse |
|
sectrus esse |
parttrus esse |
|
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRES. |
mrns |
verns |
|
sequns |
partins |
FUT. |
mrtrus |
veritrus |
|
sectrus |
parttrus |
PERF. |
mrtus |
veritus |
|
sectus |
parttus |
GER. |
mrandus |
verendus |
|
sequendus |
partiendus |
|
|
|
GERUND |
|
mrand, -, etc. |
verend, etc. |
|
sequend, etc. |
partiend, etc. |
|
|
|
SUPINE |
|
mrtum, -t
|
veritum, -t
|
|
sectum, -t
|
parttum, -t
|
[p. 105]
Deponents have the participles of both voices:
sequns, following.
|
sectrus, about to follow.
|
sectus, having followed.
|
sequendus, to be followed.
|
The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs otherwise deponent it is often passive: as, merctus, bought; adeptus, gained (or having gained).
The future infinitive is always in the active form: thus, sequor has sectrus (-a, -um) esse (not sectum r).
The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally:
hc cnfitendum est, this must be acknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice ( 156. a. N.).
Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense: as, crminor, I accuse, or I am accused.
About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and passive forms: as, mere or mereor, I deserve.
More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents are irregular:
adsentior, -r, adsnsus, assent.
apscor, (-ip-), -, aptus (-eptus), get.
dfetscor, -, -fessus, faint.
expergscor, -, -perrctus, rouse.
experior, -r, expertus, try.
fateor, -r, fassus, confess.
fruor, -, frctus (fruitus), enjoy.
fungor, -, fnctus, fulfil.
gradior (-gredior), -, gressus, step.
rscor, -, rtus, be angry.
lbor, -, lpsus, fall.
loquor, -, loctus, speak.
mtior, -r, mnsus, measure.
-minscor, -, -mentus, think.
morior, - (-r), mortuus (moritrus), die.
nancscor, -, nactus (nnctus), find.
nscor, -, ntus, be born.
ntor, -, nsus (nxus), strive.
oblvscor, -, obltus, forget.
opperior, -r, oppertus, await.
rdior, -r, rsus, begin.
orior, -r, ortus (oritrus), rise (3d conjugation in most forms).
pacscor, -, pactus, bargain.
patior (-petior), -, passus (-pessus), suffer.
-plector, -, -plexus, clasp.
proficscor, -, profectus, set out.
queror, -, questus, complain.
reor, rr, ratus, think.
revertor, -, reversus, return.
ringor, -, rictus, snarl.
sequor, -, sectus, follow.
tueor, -r, tuitus (ttus), defend.
ulcscor, -, ultus, avenge.
tor, -, sus, use, employ.
NOTE.The deponent comperior, -r, compertus, is rarely found for comperi, -re. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys tem. revert. reverteram, etc. [p. 106]
The following deponents have no supine stem:
dvertor, -t, turn aside (to lodge). |
medeor, -r, heal.
|
diffiteor, -r, deny.
|
reminscor, -, call to mind.
|
fatscor, -, gape.
|
vescor, -, feed upon.
|
lquor, -, melt (intrans.). |
NOTE.Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in the active at some period of the language.
Semi-Deponents
A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. These are called Semi-deponents. They are:
aude, audre, ausus, dare.
|
gaude, gaudre, gvsus, rejoice.
|
fd, fdre, fsus, trust.
|
sole, solre, solitus, be wont.
|
From aude there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sds (for s auds), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
The active forms vpul, vpulre, be flogged, and vne, vnre, be sold (contracted from vnum re, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fier, to be made ( 204), and exsulre, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accdere, to be added.
NOTE.The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: ir, irre. irtus, swear; nb, nbere, npta, marry; place, placre, placitus, please.
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a roundabout way of speaking. In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Periphrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amtus sum, eram, etc.). Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases consisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
NOTE.The Future Passive Infinitive, as amtum r, formed from the infinitive passive of e, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a periphrastic form ( 203. a).
There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respectively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a future or intended action.
The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indicative and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. [p. 107]
The First Periphrastic Conjugation:
|
INDICATIVE |
PRESENT |
amtrus sum, I am about to love
|
IMPERFECT |
amtrus eram, I was about to love
|
FUTURE |
amtrus er, I shall be about to love
|
PERFECT |
amtrus fu, I have been, was, about to love
|
PLUPERFECT |
amtrus fueram, I had been about to love
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
amtrus fuer, I shall have been about to love
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
amtrus sim |
IMPERFECT |
amtrus essem |
PERFECT |
amtrus fuerim |
PLUPERFECT |
amtrus fuissem |
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
amtrus esse, to be about to love
|
PERFECT |
amtrus fuisse, to have been about to love
|
So in the other conjugations:
Second: monitrus sum, I am about to advise.
Third: tctrus sum, I am about to cover.
Fourth: audtrus sum, I am about to hear.
Third (in -i): captrus sum, I am about to take.
The Second Periphrastic Conjugation:
|
INDICATIVE |
PRESENT |
amandus sum, I am to be, must be, loved
|
IMPERFECT |
amandus eram, I was to be, had to be, loved
|
FUTURE |
amandus er, I shall have to be loved
|
PERFECT |
amandus fu, I was to be, had to be, loved
|
PLUPERFECT |
amandus fueram, I had had to be loved
|
FUTURE PERFECT |
amandus fuer, I shall have had to be loved
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
amandus sim |
IMPERFECT |
amandus essem |
PERFECT |
amandus fuerim |
PLUPERFECT |
amandus fuissem |
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
amandus esse, to have to be loved
|
PERFECT |
amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
|
[p. 108]
So in the other conjugations:
Second: monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised.
Third: tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth: audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -i): capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRREGULAR VERBS
Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the present system directly to the root,
119 or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are sum, vol, fer, ed, d, e, que, f, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in 170.
Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with the prepositions ab, ad, d, in, inter, ob, prae, pr (earlier form prd), sub, super.
In the compound prsum (help), pr retains its original d before e: PRINCIPAL PARTS: prsum, prdesse, prfu, prfutrus
|
INDICATIVE |
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
|
Singular |
Plural |
Singular |
Plural |
PRESENT |
prsum |
prsumus |
prsim |
prsmus |
|
prdes |
prdestis |
prss |
prstis |
|
prdest |
prsunt |
prsit |
prsint |
IMPERFECT |
prderam |
prdermus |
prdessem |
prdessmus |
FUTURE |
prder |
prderimus |
---- |
---- |
PERFECT |
prfu |
prfuimus |
prfuerim |
prfuerimus |
PLUPERFECT |
prfueram |
prfuermus |
prfuissem |
prfuissmus |
FUT. PERF. |
prfuer |
prfuerimus |
---- |
---- |
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT prdes, prdeste
|
|
FUTURE prdest, prdestte
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT prdesse
|
|
PERFECT prfuisse
|
|
FUTURE prfutrus esse
|
|
PARTICIPLE |
|
FUTURE prfutrus
|
[p. 109]
Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows:
120 PRINCIPAL PARTS: possum, posse, potu
121
PARTICIPLE
PRES. potns (adjective), powerful
vol, nl, ml
PRINCIPAL PARTS: vol, velle, volu,, be willing, will, wish nl, nlle, nlu,, be unwilling, will not ml, mlle, mlu,, be more willing, prefer
NOTE.Nl and ml are compounds of vol. Nl is for ne-vol, and ml for mvol from mage-vol.
INDICATIVE |
PRESENT |
vol |
nl |
ml |
|
vs
122 |
nn vs |
mvs |
|
vult (volt) |
nn vult |
mvult |
|
volumus |
nlumus |
mlumus |
|
vultis (voltis) |
nn vultis |
mvultis |
|
volunt |
nlunt |
mlunt |
IMPERFECT |
volbam |
nlbam |
mlbam |
FUTURE |
volam, vols, etc. |
nlam, nls, etc. |
mlam, mls, etc. |
PERFECT |
volu |
nlu |
mlu |
PLUPERFECT |
volueram |
nlueram |
mlueram |
FUT. PERF. |
voluer |
nluer |
mluer |
[p. 110]
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
velim, -s, -it, |
nlim |
mlim |
|
velmus, -tis, -int |
IMPERFECT |
vellem,1 -s, -et, |
nllem |
mllem |
|
vellmus, -tis, -ent |
PERFECT |
voluerim |
nluerim |
mluerim |
PLUPERFECT |
voluissem |
nluissem |
mluissem
123 |
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT |
---- |
nl, nlte
|
---- |
FUTURE |
---- |
nlt, etc. |
---- |
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
velle1 |
nlle |
mlle |
PERFECT |
voluisse |
nluisse |
mluisse |
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
volns, -entis |
nlns, -entis |
---- |
NOTE.The forms ss for s vs, sltis for s vultis, and the forms nvs (n-vs), nvolt, mvol, mvolunt, mvelim, mvellem, etc., occur in early writers.
Fer, bear, carry, endure
124 PRINCIPAL PARTS: fer, ferre,
125 tul, ltum
PRESENT STEM fer-
|
PERFECT STEM tul-
|
SUPINE STEM lt-
|
[p. 111]
The compounds of fer, conjugated like the simple verb, are the following:
ad- |
adfer |
adferre |
attul |
alltum |
au-, ab-
|
aufer |
auferre |
abstul |
abltum |
con- |
cnfer |
cnferre |
contul |
colltum |
dis-, d-
|
differ |
differre |
distul |
dltum |
ex-, -
|
effer |
efferre |
extul |
ltum |
in- |
nfer |
nferre |
intul |
illtum |
ob- |
offer |
offerre |
obtul |
obltum |
re- |
refer |
referre |
rettul |
reltum |
sub- |
suffer |
sufferre |
sustul2 |
subltum
127 |
NOTE.In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially to be noted. ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning. [p. 112]
Ed, edere, d, sum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alternative forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic vowel. These are in full-faced type.
INFINITIVE |
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
edere (sse) |
PRESENT |
edns, -entis |
PERFECT |
disse |
FUTURE |
srus2 |
FUTURE |
srus esse
129 |
GERUND |
edend, -d, -dum, -d |
In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third person singular: Present Indicative stur, Imperfect Subjunctive sstur. [p. 113]
The irregular verb d, give, is conjugated as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS: d, dre, ded, datum
PRESENT STEM d-
|
PERFECT STEM ded-
|
SUPINE STEM dat-
|
|
ACTIVE |
|
PASSIVE |
|
|
INDICATIVE |
PRESENT |
d |
damus |
---- |
damur |
|
ds |
datis |
daris (-re) |
damin |
|
dat |
dant |
datur |
dantur |
IMPERFECT |
dabam |
|
dabar |
FUTURE |
dab |
|
dabor |
PERFECT |
ded |
|
datus sum |
PLUPERFECT |
dederam |
|
datus eram |
FUTURE PERFECT |
deder |
|
datus er |
|
|
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
dem, ds, det, etc. |
|
----, dris (-re), dtur, etc |
IMPERFECT |
darem |
|
darer |
PERFECT |
dederim |
|
datus sim |
PLUPERFECT |
dedissem |
|
datus essem |
|
|
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT |
d |
date |
dare |
damin |
FUTURE |
dat |
datte |
dator |
---- |
|
dat |
dant |
dator |
dantor |
|
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT |
dare |
|
dar |
PERFECT |
dedisse |
|
datus esse |
FUTURE |
datrus esse |
|
datum r
|
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT |
dns, dantis
|
PERFECT |
datus |
FUTURE |
datrus |
GERUNDIVE |
dandus |
|
GERUND |
|
dand, -d, -dum, -d |
|
SUPINE |
|
datum, dat
|
For compounds of d, see 209. a. N. [p. 114]
E, go.
131 PRINCIPAL PARTS: e, re, i (v), tum
|
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
e, s, it |
eam, es, eat |
|
mus, tis, eunt
|
emus, etis, eant
|
IMPERFECT |
bam, bs, bat
|
rem, rs, ret
|
|
bmus, btis, bant
|
rmus, rtis, rent
|
FUTURE |
b, bis, bit
|
|
bimus, bitis, bunt
|
PERFECT |
i (v) |
ierim (verim) |
PLUPERFECT |
ieram (veram) |
ssem (vissem) |
FUTURE PERFECT |
ier (ver) |
IMPERATIVE |
PRESENT |
|
FUTURE |
t, tte
|
|
te |
|
t, eunt
|
INFINITIVE |
PRESENT re
|
PERFECT sse (visse) |
FUTURE itrus esse
|
PARTICIPLES |
PRESENT ins, gen. euntis
|
FUTURE itrus
|
GERUNDIVE eundum
|
GERUND eund, -d, -dum, -d |
|
SUPINE itum, it
|
The compounds ade, approach, ine, enter, and some others, are tran sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive:
Thus inflected, the forms of e are used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive: as, itum est ( 208. d). The infinitive r is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive ( 193. N.). The verb vne, be sold (i.e. vnum e, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
In the perfect system of e the forms with v are very rare in the simple verb and unusual in the compounds.
ii before s is regularly contracted to : as, sse. [p. 115]
The compound ambi is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth conjugation. But it has also ambbat in the imperfect indicative.
Pr with e retains its original d: as, prde, prds, prdit.
Faci, facere, fc, factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future perfect fax, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of faci is
f, fir, factus sum, be made or become.
The present system of f is regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fier.
NOTE.The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
|
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
f, fs, fit |
fam, fs, fat |
|
[fmus], [ftis], funt
|
fmus, ftis, fant
|
IMPERFECT |
fbam, fbs, etc. |
fierem, fiers, etc. |
FUTURE |
fam, fs, etc. |
PERFECT |
factus sum |
factus sim |
PLUPERFECT |
factus eram |
factus essem |
FUTURE PERFECT |
factus er |
IMPERATIVE |
[f, fte, ft, ]
132 |
Most compounds of faci with prepositions weaken to in the present stem and to in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -i:
cnfici, cnficre, cnfc, cnfectum, finish.
cnficior, cnfic, cnfectus.
Other compounds retain a, and have -f in the passive: as, benefaci, -facere, -fc, -factum; passive benef, -fier, -factus, benefit. These retain the accent of the simple verb: as, bene-f'cis ( 12. a, Exc.).
A few isolated forms of fo occur in other compounds:
cnfit, it happens, cnfunt; cnfat; cnfieret, cnfierent; cnfier.
dfit, it lacks, dfunt; dfet; dfat; dfier.
effier, to be effected.
nf, begin (to speak), nfit.
interfat, let him perish; interfier, to perish.
superfit, it remains over; superfat, superfier. [p. 116]
DEFECTIVE VERBS
Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly. These are
The passive of coep is often used with the passive infinitive: as, coeptus sum vocr, I began to be called, but coep vocre, I began to call. For the present system incipi is used.
NOTE.Early and rare forms are coepi, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of d and memin have the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively:
d, I hate; deram, I hated (was hating); der, I shall hate.
NOTE 1.A present participle meminns is early and late.
NOTE 2.Nv and cnsuv (usually referred to nsc and cnsusc) are often used in the sense of I know (have learned) and I am accustomed (have become accustomed) as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see 476. N.). [p. 117]
Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such are maere, -re, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); feri, -re, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts occur in its compounds: as, vd, vdere, in-vs, in-vsum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms:
i, I say:
INDIC. |
PRES. |
i, ais,
136 ait; ----, ----, iunt
|
|
IMPF. |
ibam,
137 ibs, etc. |
SUBJV. |
PRES. |
----, is, iat; ----, ----, iant
|
IMPER. |
|
a (rare) |
PART. |
|
ins |
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except sometimes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see 6. c):thus i was pronounced ai-y and was sometimes written aii.
Inquam, I say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations (cf. the English quoth).
INDIC. |
PRES. |
inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
|
|
IMPF. |
----, ----, inquibat; ----, ----, ---- |
|
FUT. |
----, inquis, inquiet; ----, ----, ---- |
|
PERF. |
inqui, inqust, ----; ----, ----, ---- |
IMPER. |
PRES. |
inque |
|
FUT. |
inquit |
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the future nquis, inquiet.
The deponent fr, to speak, has the following forms:
INDIC. |
PRES. |
----, ----, ftur; ----, ----, fantur
|
|
FUT. |
fbor, ----, fbitur; ----, ----, ---- |
|
PERF. |
----, ----, ftus est; ----, ----, ft sunt
|
|
PLUP. |
ftus eram, ----, ftus erat; ----, ----, ---- |
IMPER. |
PRES. |
fre |
INFIN. |
PRES. |
fr |
PART. |
PRES. |
fns, fantis, etc. (in singular) |
|
PERF. |
ftus (having spoken) |
|
GER. |
fandus (to be spoken of) |
GERUND, gen.
|
fand, abl. fand
|
SUPINE |
ft |
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pr, inter, occur: as, praeftur, praefmur, affr, prftus, interftur, etc. The compound nfns is regularly used as a noun (child). nfandus, nefandus, are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable. [p. 118]
Que, I can, neque, I cannot, are conjugated like e. They are rarely used except in the present. Que is regularly accompanied by a negative. The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose. The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
INDICATIVE |
SUBJUNCTIVE |
PRESENT |
|
PRESENT |
que |
queam |
neque (nn que) |
nequeam |
qus |
ques |
nequs |
neques |
quit |
queat |
nequit |
nequeat |
qumus |
quemus |
nequmus |
nequemus |
qutis |
---- |
nequtis |
---- |
queunt |
queant |
nequeunt |
nequeant |
IMPERFECT |
|
IMPERFECT |
qubam |
---- |
---- |
nequrem |
qubat |
quret |
nequbat |
nequret |
---- |
qurent |
nequbant |
nequrent |
FUTURE |
|
FUTURE |
qub |
|
nequbit |
qubunt |
|
nequbunt |
PERFECT |
|
PERFECT |
quv |
---- |
nequv |
nequverim |
---- |
---- |
nequst |
---- |
quvit |
quverit (-ierit) |
nequvit (nequiit) |
nequverit |
quvrunt (-re) |
quierint |
nequvrunt (-quire) |
nequverint |
PLUPERFECT |
|
PLUPERFECT |
---- |
---- |
nequverat (-ierat) |
nequvisset (-qusset) |
---- |
quvissent |
nequverant (-ierant) |
nequssent |
|
|
INFINITIVE |
qure |
qusse |
nequre |
nequvisse (-qusse) |
|
|
PARTICIPLES |
quins |
|
nequins, nequeunts
|
NOTE.A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, qutur, queuntur, quitus sum, quetur, queantur, nequtur, nequitum; but none of these occurs in classic prose. [p. 119]
Quaes, I ask, beg (original form of quaer), has
INDIC. |
PRES. |
quaes, quaesmus |
NOTE.Other forms of quaes are found occasionally in early Latin. For the perfect system (quaesv, etc.), see quaer ( 211. d).
Ovre, to triumph, has the following:
INDIC. |
PRES. |
ovs, ovat
|
SUBJV. |
PRES. |
ovet |
|
IMPF. |
ovret |
PART. |
|
ovns, ovtrus, ovtus
|
GER. |
|
ovand |
A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative:
PRES. singular salv, plural salvte, FUT. salvt, hail! (from salvus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvre and the indicative forms salve, salvtis, salvbis, are rare.
PRES. singular av (or hav), plural avte, FUT. avt, hail or farewell. An infinitive avre also occurs.
PRES. singular cdo, plural cdite (cette), give, tell.
PRES. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.
138 The passive of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
[p. 120]
Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows:
Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day:
vesperscit (inceptive, 263. 1), it grows late.
|
ningit, it snows.
|
lcscit hc, it is getting light.
|
fulgurat, it lightens.
|
grandinat, it hails.
|
tonat, it thunders.
|
pluit, it rains.
|
rrat, the dew falls.
|
NOTE.In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject: as, Iuppiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.
Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb ( 354. b):
miseret m, I pity (it distresses me); pudet m, I am ashamed.
NOTE.Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity (am moved to pity); and occasionally other parts: as, paenitrus (as from paeni), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. 454, 569.2):
accidit, contingit, venit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases.
|
dlectat, iuvat, it delights.
|
licet, it is permitted.
|
oportet, it is fitting, ought.
|
certum est, it is resolved.
|
necesse est, it is needful.
|
cnstat, it is clear.
|
praestat, it is better.
|
placet, it seems good (pleases). |
interest, rfert, it concerns.
|
vidtur, it seems, seems good.
|
vacat, there is leisure.
|
decet, it is becoming.
|
restat, superest, it remains.
|
NOTE.Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vac, I have leisure. Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles libns and licns are used as adjectives.
The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see synopsis in 207):
ventum est, they came (there was coming).
pgntur, there is fighting (it is fought).
tur, some one goes (it is gone).
parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see 372).
NOTE.The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French cela se fait). [p. 121]
CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS
First Conjugation
There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun-or adjective-stem:
arm, arm (arma, arms); caec, to blind (caecus, blind); exsul, be an exile (exsul, an exile) ( 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like am; though of many only a few forms are found in use.
The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. Those marked * have also regular forms.
crep, crepu (-crepv), -crepit-, resound.
|
plic, *-plicu, *-plicit-, fold.
|
cub, *cubu, -cubit-, lie down.
|
pt, ptv, *pt-, drink.
|
d, dre, ded, dt-, give (DA). |
sec, secu, sect-, cut.
|
dom, domu, domit-, subdue.
|
son, sonu, sonit-,1 sound.
|
fric, fricu, *frict-, rub.
|
st, stet, -stat- (-stit-), stand.
|
iuv (ad-iuv), iv, it-,
139 help.
|
ton, tonu, *-tonit-, thunder.
|
mic, micu, ----, glitter.
|
vet, vetu, vetit-, forbid.
|
nec, *necu, nect- (-nect-), kill.
140 |
NOTE.Compounds of these verbs have the following forms:
crep: con-crepu, dis-crepu or -crepv; in-crepu or -crepv.
d: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, vnum-d, -ded, -dat-, of the first conjugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA, put, and are of the third conjugation: as, cond, condre, condid, conditum.
mic: d-micv, -mict-; -micu, -mict-.
plic: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plic, -plicv, -plict-; ex-plic (unfold), -u, -it-; (explain), -v, -t-; im-plic, -v (-u), -tum (-itum).
st: cn-st, -stit, (-sttrus); ad, re-st, -stit, ----; ante- (anti-), inter-, superst, -stet, ----; circum-st, -stet (-stit), ----; prae-st, -stit, -stit- (-stt-); d-st, ex-st, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-sttrus).
Second Conjugation
There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -sc ( 263. 1):
cale, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calsc, grow warm.
time, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per-timsco, to take fright. [p. 122]
Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like mone, but many lack the supine (as, arce, ward off; care, lack; ege, need; time, fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maere, be sad).
The following keep in all the systems:
dle, destroy
|
dlre |
dlv |
dltum |
fle, weep
|
flre |
flv |
fltum |
ne, sew
|
nre |
nv |
[ntum] |
vie, plait
|
vire |
[viv] |
vitum |
com-ple, fill up
141 |
-plre |
-plv |
-pltum |
The following show special irregularities:
alge, als, be cold.
|
mulce, muls, muls-, soothe.
|
rde, rs, rsrus, burn.
|
mulge, muls, muls-, milk.
|
aude, ausus sum, dare.
|
(c)nve, -nv (-nx), ----, wink.
|
auge, aux, auct-, increase.
|
(ab)ole, -olv, -olit-, destroy.
|
cave, cv, caut-, care.
|
pende, pepend, -pns-, hang.
|
cnse, cnsu, cns-, value.
|
prande, prand, prns-, dine.
|
cie, cv, cit-, excite.
|
rde, rs, -rs-, laugh.
|
doce, docu, doct-, teach.
|
sede, sd, sess-, sit.
|
fave, fv, faut-, favor.
|
sole, solitus sum, be wont.
|
ferve, ferv (ferbu), ----, glow.
|
sorbe, sorbu (sorps), ----, suck.
|
fove, fv, ft-, cherish.
|
sponde, spopond, spns-, pledge.
|
fulge, fuls, ----, shine.
|
strde, strd, ----, whiz.
|
gaude, gvsus sum, rejoice.
|
sude, sus, sus-, urge.
|
haere, haes, haes-, cling.
|
tene (-tine), tenu, -tent-, hold.
|
indulge, induls, indult-, indulge.
|
terge, ters, ters-, wipe.
|
iube, iuss, iuss-, order.
|
tonde, -totond (-tond), tns-, shear.
|
lique, licu (lqu), ----, melt.
|
torque, tors, tort-, twist.
|
lce, lx, ----, shine.
|
torre, torru, tost-, roast.
|
lge, lx, ----, mourn.
|
turge, turs, ----, swell.
|
mane, mns, mns-, wait.
|
urge, urs, ----, urge.
|
misce, -cu, mixt- (mist-), mix.
|
vide, vd, vs-, see.
|
morde, momord, mors-, bite.
|
vove, vv, vt-, vow.
|
move, mv, mt-, move.
|
Third Conjugation
The following lists include most simple verbs of the Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect Stem:
Forming the perfect stem in s (x) ( 177. b and note):
ang, nx, ----, choke.
|
claud, claus, claus-, shut.
|
carp, carps, carpt-, pluck.
|
cm, cmps, cmpt-, comb, deck.
|
cd, cess, cess-, yield.
|
coqu, cox, coct-, cook.
|
cing, cnx, cnct-, bind.
|
-cuti, -cuss, -cuss-, shake.
|
[p. 123]
dm, dmps, dmpt-, take away.
|
quati, (-cuss), quass-, shake.
|
dc, dx, dict-, say.
|
rd, rs, rs-, scrape.
|
dvid, dvs, dvs-, divide.
|
reg, rx, rct-, rule.
|
dc, dx, duct-, guide.
|
rp, rps, ----, creep.
|
mung, -mnx, -mnct-, clean out.
|
rd, rs, rs-, gnaw.
|
fg, fx, fx-, fix.
|
scalp, scalps, scalpt-, scrape.
|
fing [FIG], fnx, fict-, fashion.
|
scrb, scrps, scrpt-, write.
|
flect, flex, flex-, bend.
|
sculp, sculps, sculpt-, carve.
|
-flg, -flx, -flct-, ----, smite.
|
serp, serps, ----, crawl.
|
flu, flx, flux-, flow.
|
sparg, spars, spars-, scatter.
|
frend, ----, frs- (fress-), gnash.
|
-spici, -spex, -spect-, view.
|
frg, frx, frct-, fry.
|
-stingu, -stnx, -stnct-, quench.
|
ger, gess, gest-, carry.
|
string, strnx, strict-, bind.
|
iung, inx, inct-, join.
|
stru, strx, strct-, build.
|
laed, laes, laes-, hurt.
|
sg, sx, sct-, suck.
|
-lici, -lex, -lect-, entice (licu, -licit-). |
sm, smps, smpt-, take.
|
ldo, ls, ls-, play.
|
surg, surrx, surrct-, rise.
|
merg, mers, mers-, plunge.
|
teg, tx, tct-, shelter.
|
mitt, ms, miss-, send.
|
temn, -temps, -tempt-, despise.
|
nect [NEC], nex (nexu), nex-, weave.
|
terg, ters, ters-, wipe.
|
nb, npsi, npt-, marry.
|
ting, tnx, tnct-, stain.
|
pect, pex, pex-, comb.
|
trah, trx, trct-, drag.
|
perg, perrx, perrct-, go on.
|
trd, trs, trs-, thrust.
|
ping [PIG], pnx, pict-, paint.
|
ungu (ung), nx, nct-, anoint.
|
plang [PLAG], plnx, plnct-, beat.
|
r, uss, ust-, burn.
|
plaud, plaus, plaus-, applaud.
|
vd, -vs, -vs-, go.
|
plect, plex, plex-, braid.
|
veh, vx, vect-, draw.
|
prem, press, press-, press.
|
vv, vx, vct-, live.
|
prm, -mps, -mpt-, bring out.
|
Reduplicated in the perfect ( 177. c):
cad, cecd, cs-, fall.
|
pari, peper, part- (paritrus), bring forth.
|
caed, cecd, caes-, cut.
|
|
can, cecin, ----, sing.
|
pell, pepul, puls-, drive.
|
curr, cucurr, curs-, run.
|
pend, pepend, pns-, weigh.
|
disc [DIC], didic, ----, learn.
|
posc, poposc, ----, demand.
|
-d [DHA], -did, -dit- (as in ab-d, etc., with crd, vnd), put.
|
pung [PUG], pupug (-pnx), pnct-, prick.
|
fall, fefell, fals-, deceive.
|
sist [STA], stit, stat-, stop.
|
pang [PAG], pepig (-pg), pct-, fasten, fix, bargain.
|
tang [TAG], tetig, tct-, touch.
|
|
tend[TEN], tetend (-tend), tent-, stretch.
|
parc, peperc (pars), (parsrus), spare.
|
tund [TUD], tutud, tns- (-ts-), beat.
|
Adding u (v) to the verb-root ( 177. a):
al, alu, alt- (alit-), nourish.
|
compsc, compscu, ----, restrain.
|
cern, crv, -crt-, decree.
|
cnsul, -lu, cnsult-, consult.
|
col, colu, cult-, dwell, till.
|
crsc, crv, crt-, increase.
|
[p. 124]
-cumb [CUB], -cubu, -cubit-, lie down.
|
rapi, rapu, rapt-, seize.
|
deps, depsu, depst-, knead.
|
scsc, scv, sct-, decree.
|
frem, fremu, ----, roar.
|
ser, sv, sat-, sow.
|
gem, gemu, ----, groan.
|
ser, seru, sert-, entwine.
|
gign [GEN], genu, genit-, begct.
|
sin, sv, sit-, permit.
|
met, messu, -mess-, reap.
|
spern, sprv, sprt-, scorn.
|
mol, molu, molit-, grind.
|
stern, strv, strt-, strew.
|
occul, occulu, occult-, hide.
|
stert, -stertu, ----, snore.
|
(ad)olsc, -v, -ult-, grow up.
|
strep, strepu, ----, sound.
|
psc, pv, pst-, feed.
|
susc, suv, sut-, be wont.
|
percell, -cul, -culs-, upset.
|
tex, texu, text-, weave.
|
pn [POS], posu, posit-, put.
|
trem, tremu, ----, tremble.
|
quisc, quiv, quit-, rest.
|
vom, vomu, ----, vomit.
|
Adding iv to the verb-root ( 177. f):
arcess,
142 -v, arcesst-, summon.
|
pet, petv, pett-, seek.
|
capess, capessv, ----, undertake.
|
quaer, quaesv, quaest-, seek.
|
cupi, cupv, cupt-, desire.
|
rud, rudv, ----, bray.
|
incess, incessv, ----, attack.
|
sapi, sapv, ----, be wise.
|
lacess, lacessv, lacesst-, provoke.
|
ter, trv, trt-, rub. |
Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. 177. d):
ag, g, ct-, drive.
|
lav, lv, lt- (laut-), wash (also regular of first conjugation). |
capi, cp, capt-, take.
|
|
ed, d, sum, eat (see 201). |
leg,
143 lg, lct-, gather.
|
em, m, mpt-, buy.
|
lin [LI], lv (lv), lit-, smear.
|
faci, fc, fact-, make (see 204). |
linqu [LIC], -lqu, -lict-, leave.
|
fodi, fd, foss-, dig.
|
nsc [GNO], nv, nt- ((c-gnit-, -gnit-, ad-gnit-), know.
|
frang [FRAG], frg, frct-, break.
|
|
fugi, fg, (fugitrus), flee.
|
rump [RUP], rp, rupt-, burst.
|
fund [FUD], fd, fs-, pour.
|
scab, scb, ----, scratch.
|
faci, ic, iact-, throw (-ici, -iect-). |
vinc [VIC],vc, vict-, conquer. |
Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. 177. e):
acu, -u, -t-, sharpen.
|
imbu, -u, -t-, give a taste of.
|
argu, -u, -t-, accuse.
|
lu, lu, -lt-, wash.
|
bib, bib, (ptus), drink.
|
mand, mand, mns-, chew.
|
-cend, -cend, -cns-, kindle.
|
metu, -u, -t, fear.
|
(con)gru, -u, ----, agree.
|
minu, -u, -t-, lessen.
|
cd, -cd, -cs-, forge.
|
-nu, -nu, ----, nod.
|
facess, -i (facess), facesst-, execute
|
pand, pand, pns- (pass-), open.
|
-fend, -fend, -fns-, ward off.
|
pns, -s, pns- (pnst-, pst-), bruise.
|
find [FID], fid,
144 fiss-, split.
|
prehend, -hend, -hns-, seize.
|
c, c, ict-, hit.
|
ru, ru, rut- (ruitrus), fall. |
[p. 125]
scand, -scend, -scnsus, climb.
|
su, su, st-, sew.
|
scind [SCID], scid,
145 sciss-, tear.
|
(ex)u, -u, -t-, put off.
|
sd, sd (-sd), -sess-, settle.
|
tribu, -u, -t-, assign.
|
solv, solv, solt-, loose, pay.
|
vell, vell (-vuls), vuls-, pluck.
|
spu, -u, ----, spit.
|
verr, -verr, vers-, sweep.
|
statu, -u, -t-, establish.
|
vert, vert, vers-, turn.
|
sternuo, -u, ----, sneeze.
|
vs [VID], vs, vs-, visit.
|
strd, strd, ----, whiz.
|
volv, volv, volt-, turn. |
NOTE.Several have no perfect or supine: as, claud, limp; fatsc, gape; hsc, yawn; toll (sustul, subltum, supplied from suffer), raise; verg, incline.
Fourth Conjugation
There arebesides a few deponents and some regular derivatives in -ri, as, suri, be hungry (cf. 263. 4)about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: like
crci, croak; mgi, bellow; tinni, tinkle.
Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like audi, though a number lack the supine.
The following verbs show special peculiarities:
amici, amix (-cu), amict-, clothe.
|
saepi, saeps, saept-, hedge in.
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aperi, aperu, apert-, open.
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sali (-sili), salu (sali), [salt- (-sult-)], leap.
|
comperi, -per, compert-, find.
|
|
farci, fars, fartum, stuff.
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sanci [SAC], snx, snct-, sanction.
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feri, ----, ----, strike.
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sarci, sars, sart-, patch.
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fulci, fuls, fult-, prop.
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senti, sns, sns-, feel.
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nauri, haus, haust- (hausrus), drain.
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sepeli, sepelv, sepult-, bury.
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operi, operu, opert-, cover.
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veni, vn, vent-, come.
|
reperi, repper, repert-, find.
|
vinci, vnx, vnct-, bind.
|
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff. [p. 126]
PARTICLES
[213] Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions ( 219 and 222).
ADVERBS
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows:
From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -: as, cr, dearly, from crus, dear (stem cro-); amc, like a friend, from amcus, friendly (stem amco-).
NOTE.The ending - is a relic of an old ablative in -d (cf. 43. N. 1).
From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem. Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems:
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.
criter, eagerly, from cer (stem cri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilns (stem vigilant-).
prdenter, prudently, from prdns (stem prdent-).
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
NOTE.This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -τερος and in uter, alter. If so, these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf.d) or masculine nominatives.
Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of both forms (- and -ter). Thus drus, hard, has both dr and driter; miser, wretched, has both miser and miseriter.
The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb: as, multum, much; facil, easily; quid, why.
This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of adverbs ( 218): as, crius, more keenly (positive criter); facilius, more easily (positive facil).
NOTE.These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives ( 390).
The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: as, fals, falsely; cit, [p. 127]
quickly (with shortened o); rct (vi), straight (straightway); crbr, frequently; volg, commonly; fort, by chance; spont, of one's own accord.
NOTE.Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abund, plentifully (as if from abundus; cf. abund, abound); saep, often (as if from saepis, dense, close-packed; cf. saeps, hedge, and saepi, hedge in).
Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: nn (for n-oinom, later num), not; iterum (comparative of i-, stem of is), a second time; dmum (superlative of d, down), at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally saltem), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular adverbial termination; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim: as, spartim, separately, from spartus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly; perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives: as, alis, elsewhere; fors, out of doors (as end of motion). So perhaps quia, because.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qu, where; intr, within; extr, outside; qu, how; aliqu, somehow; fors, out of doors; qu, whither; ade, to that degree; ultr, beyond; citr, this side (as end of motion); retr, back; illc (for ill-ce), weakened to illc, thither. Those in -tr are from comparative stems (cf. ls, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; ill, ill-c, there; peregr (peregr), abroad; hc (for h-ce), here. Also the compounds hodi (probably for hdi), to-day; perendi, day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an ablative meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; dvnitus, from above, providentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -d: as, quidem, indeed; quondam, once; quand (cf. dnec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of time), while; iam, now.
A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides):
postmodo, presently (a short time after).
dnu (for d nov), anew.
vidlicet (for vid licet), to wit (see, you may).
nihilminus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
NOTE.Other examples are:ante, old antide, before (ante e, probably ablative or instrumental); lic (in loc), on the spot, immediately; prrsus, absolutely (pr vorsus, straight ahead); rrsus (re-vorsus), again; quotanns, yearly (quot anns, as many years as there are); quam-ob-rem, wherefore; cminus, hand to hand (con manus); minus, at long range (ex manus); nmrum, without doubt (n mrum); ob-viam (as in re obviam, to go to meet); prdem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), for some time; forsan (fors an), perhaps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); sclicet (sc, licet), that is to say (know, you may; cf. -licet, you may go); cttum (ct, on the act, and tum, then). [p. 128]
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows:
a. Adverbs of Place
146
hc, here.
|
hc, hither.
|
hinc, hence.
|
hc, by this way.
|
ibi, there.
|
e, thither.
|
inde, thence.
|
e, by that way.
|
istc, there.
|
istc, thither.
|
istinc, thence.
|
ist, by that way.
|
illc, there.
|
illc, thither.
|
illinc, thence.
|
ill (illc), by that way.
|
ubi, where.
|
qu, whither.
|
unde, whence.
|
qu, by what way.
|
alicubi, somewhere.
|
aliqu, somewhither, |
alicunde, from some- |
aliqu, by some way.
|
|
(to) somewhere.
|
where. |
ibdem, in the same
|
edem, to the same
|
indidem, from the
|
edem, by the same
|
place. |
place. |
same place. |
way. |
alib, elsewhere, in
|
ali, elsewhere, to
|
aliunde, from an- |
ali, in another
|
another place. |
another place. |
other place. |
way. |
abiubi, wherever.
|
ququ, whitherso- |
undecunque, whence- |
ququ, in whatever
|
|
ever. |
soever. |
way. |
ubivs, anywhere, |
quvs, anywhere, |
undique, from every
|
quvs, by whatever
|
where you will. |
whither you will. |
quarter. |
way. |
scubi, if anywhere.
|
squ, if anywhere
|
scunde, if from any- |
squ, if anywhere.
|
|
(anywhither). |
where. |
<*>cubi, lest any- |
nqu, lest any- |
ncunde, lest from
|
nqu, lest any- |
where. |
whither. |
anywhere. |
where. |
NOTE.The demonstrative adverbs hc, ibi, istc, illc, and their correlatives, correspond in signification with the pronouns hc, is, iste, ille (see 146), and are often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition: as, inde = ab e, etc. So the relative or mterrogative ubi corresponds with qu (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, s-cubi with squis (see 147-151, with the table of correlatives in 152).
sque, all the way to; usquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citr, to this side; intr, inwardly; ultr, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); porr, further on.
qursum (for qu vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? hrsum, this way; prrsum, forward (prrsus, utterly); intrrsum, inwardly; retrrsum, backward; srsum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; alirsum, another way.
b. Adverbs of Time
quand, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc, now; tunc (tum), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam di, iam ddum, iam prdem, long ago, long since. [p. 129]
prmum (prm), first; deinde (poste), next after; postrmum (postrm), finally; postequam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as).
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never; semper, always.
aliquand, at some time, at length; quandque (quandcumque), whenever; dnique, at last.
quotins (quotis), how often; totins, so often; aliquotins, a number of times.
cotdi, every day; hodi, to-day; her, yesterday; crs, to-morrow; prdi, the day before; postrdi, the day after; in dis, from day to day.
nndum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam prmum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crbr, frequently; iam nn, no longer.
c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvs, however much, although; paene, almost; magis, more; vald, greatly; vix, hardly.
cr, qur, why; ide, idcirc, proptere, on this account, because; e, therefore; erg, itaque, igitur, therefore.
ita, sc, so; ut (ut), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.
d. Interrogative Particles
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.
nnne, annn, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see 332, 335.
e. Negative Particles
nn, not (in simple denial); haud, minim, not (in contradiction); n, not (in prohibition); nve, neu, nor; ndum, much less.
n, lest; neque, nec, nor; n ... quidem, not even.
nn modo ... vrum (sed) etiam, not only ... but also.
nn modo ... sed n ... quidem, not only NOT ... but not even.
s minus, if not; qu minus (quminus), so as not.
qun (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?
n, nec (in composition), not; so in nesci, I know not; neg, I say no (i, I say yes); negtium, business (nec-tium); nm (n- and hem, old form of hom), no one; n quis, lest any one; neque enim, for ... not.
For the use of Negative Particles, see 325 ff.
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see 320 ff.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative is the Adverb in - formed regularly from the superlative of the Adjective: [p. 130]
cr, dearly (from crus, dear); crius, crissim.
miser (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miserius, miserrim.
leviter (from levis, light); levius, levissim.
audcter (audciter) (from audx, bold); audcius, audcissim.
ben, well (from bonus, good); melius, optim.
mal, ill (from malus, bad); pius, pessim.
The following are irregular or defective:
di, long (in time); ditius, ditissim.
potius, rather; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.
saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissim.
satis, enough; satius, preferable.
secus, otherwise; stius, worse.
multum (mult), magis, maxim, much, more, most.
parum, not enough; minus, less; minim, least.
nper, newly; nperrim.
temper, seasonably; temperius.
NOTE.In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision (cf. 338). These adverbs, from their habitual association with particular cases, became Prepositions; but many retained also their independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms: as, the comparative ablatives extr, nfr, supr (for exter, nfer, super), and the accusatives circum, cram, cum (cf. 215). Circiter is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. 214. b. N.); praeter is the comparative of prae, propter of prope.
147 Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vert); adversus is a compound of versus; trns is probably an old present participle (cf. in-tr-re); while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, d, ex, ob, is obscure and doubtful.
Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.
The following prepositions are used with the Accusative:
ad, to.
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circiter, about.
|
intr, inside.
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adversus, against.
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cis, citr, this side.
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ixt, near.
|
adversum, towards.
|
contr, against.
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ob, on account of.
|
ante, before.
|
erg, towards.
|
penes, in the power of.
|
apud, at, near.
|
extr, outside.
|
per, through.
|
circ, around.
|
nfr, below.
|
pne, behind.
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circum, around.
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inter, among.
|
post, after.
|
[p. 131]
The following prepositions are used with the Ablative:
148
, b, abs, away from, by.
|
, ex, out of.
|
absque, without, but for.
|
prae, in comparison with.
|
cram, in presence of.
|
pr, in front of, for.
|
cum, with.
|
sine, without.
|
d, from.
|
tenus, up to, as far as.
|
The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning:
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by the ablative, rest in, a place:
vnit in aeds, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplna in Britanni reperta atque inde in Galliam trnslta esse exstimtur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and thence brought over to Gaul.
sub lice cnsederat, he had seated himself under an ilex.
sub lgs mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under laws).
The uses of the Prepositions are as follows:
1. , ab, away from,
149 from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place: as,ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time: (1) from: as,ab hr terti ad vesperam, from the third hour till evening; (2) just after: as,ab e magistrt, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses: reliqus differunt, they differ from the others; parvuls, from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; lberre ab, to set free from; occsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hc parte, on this side; ab r ius, to his advantage; r pblic, for the interest of the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place: as,ad urbem vnit, he came to the city; ad merdiem, towards the south; ad exercitum, to the army; ad hostem, toward the enemy; ad urbem, near the city.
b. Of time: as,ad nnam hram, till the ninth hour.
c. With persons: as,ad eum vnit, he came to him. [p. 132]
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia dscendunt, they resort to punishment; ad haec respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adre ad rem pblicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pcem, to seek peace; ad latera, on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hc, besides; omns ad num, all to a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place: as,ante portam, in front of the gate; ante exercitum, in advance of the army.
b. Of time: as,ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses: ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem quntum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic): as,apud forum, at the forum (in the marketplace).
b. With reference to persons or communities: as,apud Helvtis, among the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud s, at home or in his senses; apud Cicernem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circ, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place: templa circ forum, the temples about the forum; circ s habet, he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers): circ eandem hram, about the same hour; circ ds Octbrs, about the fifteenth of October; circ decem mlia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. d): circ quem pgna est, with regard to whom, etc.; circ des neglegentior, rather neglectful of (i.e. in worshipping) the gods.
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number: circiter ds Novembrs, about the thirteenth of November; circiter merdiem, about noon.
7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua; circum illum, with him; lgti circum nsuls missa, an embassy sent to the islands round about; circum amcs, to his friends round about.
8. Contr, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contr taliam, over against Italy; contr haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb: as,haec contr, this in reply; contr autem, but on the other hand; quod contr, whereas, on the other hand.
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative. [p. 133]
a. Of place: as,vde mcum, go with me; cum omnibus impedments, with all [their] baggage.
b. Of time: as,prm cum lce, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: mgn cum dolre, with great sorrow; commnicre aliquid cum aliqu, share something with some one; cum mal su, to his own hurt; cnflgere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum tl, to go armed; cum silenti, in silence.
10. D, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from; ex, out of).
a. Of place: as,d cael dmissus, sent down from heaven; d nvibus dsilre, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of:
150 as,cgnscit d Cld caede, he learns of the murder of Clodius; cnsilia d bell, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as,nus d plbe, one of the people.
d. Idiomatic uses: mults d causs, for many reasons; qu d caus, for which reason; d imprvs, of a sudden; d industri, on purpose; d integr, anew; d terti vigili, just at midnight (starting at the third watch); d mnse Decembr nvigre, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, , from (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the ablative (cf. ab and d).
a. Of place: as,ex omnibus partibus silvae volvrunt, they flew out from all parts of the forest; ex Hispni, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time: as,ex e di quntus, the fifth day from that (four days after); ex hc di, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex cnsult, right after his consulship: ex ius sententi, according to his opinion; ex aequ, justly; ex imprvs, unexpectedly; ex tu r, to your advantage; mgn ex parte, in a great degree; ex equ pgnre, to fight on horseback; ex s, expedient; regine, opposite; quaerere ex aliqu, to ask of some one; ex sents cnsult, according to the decree of the senate; ex fug, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it); nus flis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
a. Of place: as,in taliam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until: as,in lcem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in merdiem, towards the south; amor in (erg, adversus) patrem, love for his father; in ram cnfgit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to); in dis, from day to day; in longitdinem, lengthwise; in ltitdinem patbat, extended in width; in haec verba irre, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way; rti in Catilnam, a speech against [p. 134]
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in pius, for the worse; in diem vvere, to live from hand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections: as,in castrs, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at, or near the camp); in mar, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore, in season; in scrbend, while writing; est mihi in anim, I have it in mind, I intend; in ancors, at anchor; in hc homine, in the case of this man; in dubi esse, to be in doubt.
13. nfr, below, with the accusative.
a. Of place: as,ad mare nfr oppidum, by the sea below the town; nfr caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as,nfr Homrum, later than Homer; nfr trs peds, less than three feet; nfr elephants, smaller than elephants; nfr nfims omns, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative.
inter m et Scpinem, between myself and Scipio; inter s et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel); inter hostium tla, amid the weapons of the enemy; inter omns prmus, first of all; inter bibendum, while drinking; inter s loquuntur, they talk together.
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally: (1) of motion (archaic): as,ob Rmam, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place in which, before, in a few phrases: as,ob oculs, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as,ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of (a similar mercantile idea), for: as,ob eam causam, for that reason; quam ob rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as,per urbem re, to go through the city; per mrs, over the walls.
b. Of time: as,per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments: as,per homins idones, through the instrumentality of suitable persons; licet per m, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per m, it is through my instrumentality; so, per s, in and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions: as,per iocum, in jest; per speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections): as,prae s portre, to carry in one's arms; prae s ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, proclaim ostentatiously, make known. [p. 135]
b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English for): as,prae gaudi conticuit, he was silent for joy.
c. Of comparison: as,prae mgnitdine corporum surum, in comparison with their own great size.
18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as,praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of); praeter oculs, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except: as,praeter spem, beyond hope; praeter alis, more than others; praeter paucs, with the exception of a few.
19. Pr, in front of, with the ablative.
sedns pr aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor; pr popul, in presence of the people. So pr rstrs, on [the front of] the rostra; pr contine, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: pr lge, in defence of the law; pr vitul, instead of a heifer; pr centum mlibus, as good as a hundred thousand; pr rat parte, in due proportion; pr hc vice, for this once; pr cnsule, in place of consul; pr vribus, considering his strength; pr virl parte, to the best of one's ability; pr tu prdenti, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter t sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of): as,propter metum, through fear.
21. Secundum,
151 just behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as,te secundum m (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum ltus, near the shore; secundum flmen, along the stream (cf. secund flmine, down stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as,secundum ntram, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative: as,sub montem succdere, to come close to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lcem, near daylight; sub haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative: as,sub Iove, in the open air (under the heaven, personified as Jove); sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub edem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry, the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but,subter ltore (Catull.), below the shore.
24. Super,
152 with the accusative or the ablative. [p. 136]
1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon.
a. Of place: super vllum praecipitr (Iug. 58), to be hurled over the rampart; super laters coria indcuntur (B.C. 2.10), hides are drawn over the bricks; super terrae tumulum statu (Legg. 2.65), to be placed on the mound of earth; super Numidiam (Iug. 19), beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super vnum (Q. C. 8.4), over his wine.
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in prose).
hc super r, concerning this thing; super tl r, about such an affair; litters super tant r exspectre, to wait for a letter in a matter of such importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses: lgna super foc larg repnns (Hor. Od. 1.9.5), piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super medi (Aen. 9.61), after midnight.
25. Supr, on top of, above, with the accusative.
supr terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively: as,supr hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supr mrem, more than usual; supr quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the ablative, sometimes with the genitive (cf. 359. b).
1. With the ablative: Taur tenus, as far as Taurus; capul tenus, up to the hilt.
2. With the genitive: Cumrum tenus (Fam. 8.1.2), as far as Cumae.
NOTE 1.Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as, hctenus, hitherto; qutenus, so far as; d hc r hctenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).
NOTE 2.Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative ( 397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as,trns mare currunt, they run across the sea; trns flmen ferre, to carry over a river; trns aethera, through the sky; trns caput iace, throw over your head.
b. Of rest: as,trns Rhnum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultr beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultrque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultr eum numerum, more than that number; ultr fidem, incredible; ultr modum, immoderate.
NOTE.Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, nsuper (see 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see 267. [p. 137]
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