AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, bonus impertor, a good commander; stellae lcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word. [p. 171]
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:
stellae lcidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Scpi clrus (Cat. 4.21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homins mts reddidit (Inv. 1.2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia Capitn propria trduntur (Rosc. Am. 21), three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.
cnsilium cprunt plnum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.
NOTE.A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb ( 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like ( 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun ( 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:
vir fortis, a brave man.
illa mulier, that woman.
urbium mgnrum, of great cities.
cum ducents mlitibus, with two hundred soldiers.
impertor victus est, the general was beaten.
sectae sunt tempestts, storms followed.
NOTE.All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.
With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):
Nsus et Euryalus prm (Aen. 5.294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omn et grti et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21), I enjoy all Csar's favor and resources.
NOTE.An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, 280. a): as,Iuba cum Labin capt (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.
A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, 280. a):
pars certre part (Aen. 5.108), a part ready to contend.
colniae aliquot dductae, Prsc Latn appellt (Liv. 1.3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitd convict sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44), a multitude were convicted.
mgna pars raptae (id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
NOTE.A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,vlcissimum animlium delphnus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. [p. 172]
One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
multae operae ac labris, of much trouble and toil.
vta mrsque me, my life and character.
s rs, s vir, s tempus llum dgnum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:
factus est strepitus et admurmurti; (Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).
NOTE.This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject ( 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:
uxor deinde ac lber amplex (Liv. 2.40), then his wife and children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptsque (F.) societte qudam inter s ntrl sunt incta (N.) (id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:
rx rgiaque classis n profect (Liv. 21.50), the king and the royal fleet set out together.
ntr inimca sunt lbera cvits et rx (id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.
lgts sortsque rcul exspectands (id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. 289. c):
stultitia et temerits et inistitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39), foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things: [p. 173]
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omns, all men (everybody). |
omnia, all things (everything). |
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mirs, ancestors.
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minrs, descendants.
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Rmn, Romans.
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barbar, barbarians.
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lberta, a freedwoman.
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Sabnae, the Sabine wives.
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| sapins, a sage (philosopher). |
amcus, a friend.
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bon, the good (good people). |
bona, goods, property.
|
NOTE.The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter ( 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.
Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:
tuus vcnus proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqu cter, his other relatives.
meus aequlis, a man of my own age.
ius familiris Catilna (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostr familirissimus (Fam. 9.13.2), a very close friend of our friend Lepta.
When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:
bon, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,
potentia omnium rrum, power over everything.
Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:
fricus [ventus], the southwest wind; Inurius [mnsis], January; vitulna [car], veal (calf's flesh); fera [bstia], a wild beast; patria [terra], the fatherland; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Gall); hberna [castra], winter quarters; trirmis [nvis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentrius [faber], a silversmith; rgia [domus], the palace; Latnae [friae], the Latin festival.
NOTE.These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in 288. They include the names of winds and months ( 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see 321. d.
Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:
The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:
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rapt vvere, to live by plunder.
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in rid, on dry ground.
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honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est mtrt, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives 208. d.] [p. 174]
The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:
omns fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. 287. a):
trste lupus stabuls (Ecl. 3.80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mtbile semper fmina (Aen. 4.569), woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.
malum mihi vidtur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9), death seems to me to be an evil.
A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
istuc ipsum nn esse (Tusc. 1.12), that very not to be.
hmnum est errre, to err is human.
aliud est errre Caesarem nlle, aliud nlle miserr; (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Csar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:
prmus vnit, he was the first to come (came first).
nllus dubit, I no way doubt.
laet audire, they were glad to hear.
erat Rmae frequns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
srus in caelum redes (Hor. Od. 1.2.45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:
The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,brevior, rather short; audcior, too bold.
The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,mns altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE.The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive. [p. 175]
With quam, vel, or nus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:
quam plrim, as many as possible.
quam maxim potest (maxim quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir nus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
NOTE 1.A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, vald, very, or by per or prae in composition ( 267. d. 1): as,vald malus, very bad= pessimus; permgnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
NOTE 2.A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,subrsticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minim, not at all; parum, not enough; nn satis, not much.
NOTE 3.The comparative mirs (for mirs nt, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minrs often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see 406, 407; for that of a clause, see 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (mult etc.), see 414.
When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:
longior quam ltior acis erat (Liv. 27.48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
vrior quam grtior (id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.
NOTE.So also with adverbs: as,libentius quam vrius (Mil. 78), with more freedom than truth.
Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:
disertus magis quam sapins (Att. 10.1.4), eloquent rather than wise.
clr magis quam honest (Iug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
NOTE.A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:
clrs miribus quam vetusts (Tac. Ann. 4.61), of a family more famous than old.
vehementius quam caut (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and successionalso medius, [cterus], reliquususually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
summus mns, the top of the hill.
in ultim plate, at the end of the place.
prior cti, the earlier part of an action.
reliqu captv, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medi (B. G. 1.24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter cteram plnitiem (Iug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
NOTE.A similar use is found in sr (mult) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum di, much of the day, also occur. [p. 176]
PRONOUNS
[294] A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction ( 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:
| Personal Pronouns ( 295). |
Interrogative Pronouns ( 333). |
| Demonstrative Pronouns ( 296). |
Relative Pronouns ( 303). |
| Reflexive Pronouns ( 299). |
Indefinite Pronouns ( 309). |
| Possessive Pronouns ( 302). |
Personal Pronouns
The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:
t voc, I call you. But,
quis m vocat? ego t voc, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively ( 346), and that in - oftenest objectively ( 348):
mior vestrum, the elder of you.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su; (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.
NOTE 1.The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively ( 348): as,cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224), fond of you; csts vestrum (Cat. 3.29), the guardian of you (your guardian).
NOTE 2.One of themselves is expressed by nus ex sus or ipss (rarely ex s), or nus surum.
The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive s. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative ( 296. 2, 308. f) [p. 177]
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives ( 286, 287):
hc proeli fact, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
edem proeli, in the same battle.
ex es aedificis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:
Caesar et exercitus ius, Csar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dmsit, Csar disbanded his [own] army.]
s obsids ab es dentur (B. G. 1.14), if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).
h sunt extr prvinciam trns Rhodanum prm; (id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter adulscentiam poterat (id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.
An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. 306):
hc locus est nus qu perfugiant; hc portus, haec arx, haec ra socirum (Verr. 5.126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rrum caput hc erat, hc fns (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45), this was the head of things, this the source.
eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhc mortlis nm est cnsectus [for id. ..quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
The main uses of hc, ille, iste, and is are the following:
Hc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for the latter of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for the former, when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned. [p. 178]
Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean the former; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean the following.
Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,hence called the demonstrative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qu:
vnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litters abs t reddidit (Att. 2.1.1), your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem, one whom.
eum cnsulem qu nn dubitet (Cat. 4.24), a consul who will not hesitate.
The pronouns hc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidre (Tusc. 1.52), that is in truth a very great thing,to see the soul.
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:
nllam virts aliam mercdem dsderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
NOTE.But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:
cum e Simnids artem memoriae pollicrtur: oblvinis, inquit, mllem (Fin. 2.104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, I should prefer, said he, [that] of forgetfulness.
Caesaris exercitus Pompins ad Pharslum vcit, the army of Csar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
The main uses of dem and ipse are as follows:
When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or dem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing: [p. 179]
per num servum et eum ex gladitri ld; (Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus rgnum occupre cntus est, vel rgnvit is quidem paucs mnss (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.
NOTE.So rarely with ille: as,nunc dextr ingeminns icts, nunc ille sinistr (Aen. 5.457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ὅ γε: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]
Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
rti splendida et grandis et eadem in prms facta (Brut. 273), an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dcat, negat dem esse in De grtiam (N. D. 1.121), when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NOTE.This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:
turpe mihi ips vidbtur (Phil. 1.9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. 2.60), at that very time.
NOTE 1.The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
NOTE 2.In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by s or ss.
Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:
idque re pblicae praeclrum, ipss glrisum (Phil. 2.27), and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omns bon quantum in ipss fuit (id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).
d capit ipsus generque reservent (Aen. 8.484), may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:
vbscum ips recordmin; (Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:
ipse dxit (cf. αὐτὸς ἔφα), he (the Master) said it.
Nmentnus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23), Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table]. [p. 180]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see 300. b).
Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:
m ipse cnslor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not m ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
The Reflexive Pronoun (s), and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:
s ex nv pricit (B. G. 4.25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorgem ad s vocat (id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
ss castrs tenbant (id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemn s putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar sus cpis subdcit (B. G. 1.22), Csar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhnum esse trnseundum (id. 4.16), Csar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (me, tu, etc.) and the corresponding possessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used:
mort m obtul; (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc t rgnae ad lmina perfer (Aen. 1.389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tants ns in labribus exercemus (Arch. 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?
singuls vbs novns ex turms manipulsque vestr simils ligite (Liv. 21.54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.
In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):
idicr potest quantum habeat in s bon cnstantia (B. G. 1.40), it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] nluit eum locum vacre, n Germn sus fnibus trnsrent (id. 1.28), Csar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
s qua sgnificti virttis lceat ad quam s similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself. [p. 181]
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):
petirunt ut sibi licret (B. G. 1.30), they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).
Iccius nntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submitttur (id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legi e grtis git, quod d s optimum idicium fcisset (id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.
s obsids ab es (the Helvetians) sibi (Csar, who is the speaker) dentur, s (Csar) cum es pcem esse factrum (id. 1.14), [Csar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NOTE.Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,cum ips de nihil minus grtum futrum sit quam nn omnibus patre ad s plcandum viam (Legg. 2.25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:
sunt ita mult ut es carcer capere nn possit (Cat. 2.22), they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here s could not be used; so also in the example following.]
ibi in proxims vlls ita bipartt furunt, ut Tiberis inter es et pns interesset (id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).
nn fuit e contentus quod e praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare: qu fit, Maecns, ut nm, quam sibi sortem seu rati dederit seu fors obicerit, ill contentus vvat (Hor. S. 1.1.1), how comes it, Mcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:
cr d su virtte aut d ipsus dligenti dsprrent (B. G. 1.40), why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?
omnia aut ipss aut hosts popults (Q. C. 3.5.6), [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.] [p. 182]
qu s ex hs minus timids exstimr volbant, nn s hostem verr, sed angustis itineris et mgnitdinem silvrum quae intercderent inter ipss (the persons referred to by s above) atque Ariovistum ... timre dcbant (B. G. 1.39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audstis nper dcere lgts Tyndaritns Mercurium qu sacrs anniversris apud es colertur esse subltum (Verr. 4.84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud es colbtur, a remark of his own, and apud s colertur, the words of the ambassadors. es does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the peoplethe Tyndaritani.]
Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:
The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:
Paetus omns librs qus frter suus relquisset mihi dnvit (Att. 2.1), Ptus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.
The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
Scratem cvs su interfcrunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.
qu poterat sals sua cuiquam nn probr; (Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc s sect erunt su comits (Cat. 2.10), this man, if his companions follow him.
NOTE.Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,stude snre sibi ipss (Cat. 2.17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sn sibi sint).
Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:
sus flamms dlte Fdns (Liv. 4.33), destroy Fiden with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]
The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
su laus, self-praise.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perdit homins cum su similibus servs (Phil. 1.5), abandoned men with slaves like themselves. [p. 183]
The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:
contentum sus rbus esse maximae sunt dvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui prposita sit cnservti su (Fin. 5.37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
Inter s (ns, vs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:
inter s cnflgunt (Cat. 1.25), contend with each other.
inter s continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:
haec rnmenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4), these are my jewels. [mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
me sunt rdins, mea dscrpti; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostr collgi praeclra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [nostr is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germn sus cpis castrs dxrunt (B. G. 1.51), the Germans led their troops out of the camp.
To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns ( 343. a):
domus mea, my house. [Not domus me.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostr.]
patrimnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tu.]
NOTE 1.Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see 348. a.
NOTE 2.The Interrogative Possessive cius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,cium pecus (Ecl. 3.1), whose flock? The genitive cius is generally used instead.
The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
[petere] ut su clmenti ac mnsutdine ttur (B. G. 2.14), they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
gnrant quem portum petat nllus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tu pgnst; (Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?
NOTE.This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally. [p. 184]
The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:
socium fraudvit, he cheated his partner. [socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]
Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:
nostr, our countrymen, or men of our party.
sus continbat (B. G. 1.15), he held his men in check.
flamma extrma merum (Aen. 2.431), last flames of my countrymen.
Sulln, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompin, the partisans of Pompey.
NOTE.There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see 288).
A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:
me slus caus; (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostr omnium flt; (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Annin Milnis dom; (Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Ann Milnis dom.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsus rgnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locs esse Germns audibat (B. G. 4.7), he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,e qu Alesiae obsdbantur (B. G. 7.77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,T. Balventius, qu superire ann prmum plum dxerat (id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by qu at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced. [p. 185]
A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence
eum nihil dlectbat quod fs esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was right,
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fs esset, indicating a relation between the two.
A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:
ea dis quam cnstituerat vnit (B. G. 1.8), that day which he had appointed came.
pontem qu erat ad Genvam iubet rescind; (id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatuc, d quibus supr dximus, domum revertrunt (id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
NOTE.This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, qulis, quantus, qucumque, etc.
If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives ( 286, 287):
flium et fliam, qus vald dlxit, un tempore msit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grands nt mtrs et parvul lber, qurum utrrumque aets misericor, diam nostram requrit (Verr. 5.129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
tium atque dvitiae, quae prma mortls putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae frgs et frcts qus terra gignit (N. D. 2.37), those fruits and crops which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see 316. a.
A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. 296. a):
mare etiam quem Neptnum esse dcbs (N. D. 3.52), the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thbae ipsae, quod Boetiae caput est (Liv. 42.44), even Thebes, which is the chief city of Botia. [Not quae.]
NOTE.This rule is occasionally violated: as,flmen quod appelltur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11), a river which is called the Thames. [p. 186]
A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):
s aliquid ag erum qurum cnsust; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For erum quae.]
NOTE.Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statu vestra est (Aen. 1.573), the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem convenre volu, in nv nn erat (Pl. Am. 1009), Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:
qurtum genus ... qu in vetere aere alin vacillant (Cat. 2.21), a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.
nus ex e numer qu part erant (Iug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready.
conirvre pauc, d qu [i.e. conirtine] dcam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
NOTE.So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, nostra cta, qus tyranns vocs (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here qus agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:
loc ntra erat haec quem locum nostr dlgerant (B. G. 2.18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:
qus rs in cnsult nostr gessimus attigit hc versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prma innocentis mihi dfnsi est oblta suscp; (Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
NOTE.In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:
quae pars cvittis calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae grtia currum fuit vvs, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653), the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qu fit ut nm, quam sibi sortem rati dederit, ill contentus vvat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him? [p. 187]
The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:
qu decimae leginis aquilam ferbat (B. G. 4.25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qu cgnscerent msit (id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
The phrase id quod or quae rs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:
[obtrecttum est] Gabni dcam anne Pompi? an utrqueid quod est vrius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offeredshall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? orwhich is truerto both?
multum sunt in vntinibus, quae rs vrs alit (B. G. 4.1), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
NOTE.But quod alone often occurs: as,Cassius noster, quod mihi mgnae voluptt fuit, hostem ricerat (Fam. 2.10), our friend Cassiuswhich was a great satisfaction to mehad driven back the enemy.
The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:
frm [amc], cius generis est mgna pnria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:
vsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vderat (Verr. 4.63), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
Special Uses of the Relative
In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:
The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:
liber quem mihi dedist, the book you gave me.
is sum qu semper fu, I am the same man I always was.
e in loc est d qu tibi loctus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:
erat profectus obviam leginibus Macedonics quattuor, qus sibi concilire pecni cgitbat esque ad urbem addcere (Fam. 12.23.2), he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city. [p. 188]
A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:
lgs quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qu Galliam vcit, Csar the conqueror of Gaul.
ista glria qu est frctus virttis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.
ille qu petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).
qu legit, a reader (one who reads).
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. 307. b):
quae pars cvittis Helvtiae nsgnem calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
NOTE.In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,ille qu cnsult cavet, ditin t bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:
quae vestra prdentia est (Cael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to pr vestr prdenti.]
audsss cmoeds vel lctrem vel lyristn, vel, quae mea lberlits, omns (Plin. Ep. 1.15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, orsuch is my liberalityto all of them.
A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convnit (B. G. 3.14), Csar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.
quae qu audibant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
qurum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13), what deed of theirs like this?
qu cum vnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NOTE.This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.
A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun: [p. 189]
mortuus Cms qu s contulerat (Liv. 2.21), having died at Cum, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in qus.]
locus qu aditus nn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
rgna unde genus dcis (Aen. 5.801), the kingdom from which you derive your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
The relatives qu, qulis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset tlis qulem t esse vide; (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.
tanta dmicti quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2), such a fight as never was before.
tot mala quot sdera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, qu, unde, cum, qur.
Indefinite Pronouns
The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
Quis, quispiam, aliquis, qudam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and qudam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:
dxerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqu philosoph ita putant, some philosophers think so. [qudam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hc quaedam muliers pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nesci quae].
The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations s quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; n quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis (ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.
The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after s, nisi, n, and num, and are rather more emphatic:
quid s hc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had desired this?
nisi alicui surum negtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.
cavbat Pompius omnia, n aliquid vs timrtis (Mil. 66), Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear. [p. 190]
In a particular negative aliquis (aliqu), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or llus, any, would be required:
istitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50), justice never does harm to anybody. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
nn sine aliqu met, not without some fear. But,sine ll met, without any fear.
cum aliquid nn habes (Tusc. 1.88), when there is something you have not.
NOTE.The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam (llus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:
s quisquam, ille sapins fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia lla furunt (Rosc. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
s quid in t peccv; (Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see 310)].
Quvs or qulibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective llus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quvs and qulibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and llus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:
nn cuivs homin contingit adre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36), it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [nn cuiquam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132), anybody you will, provided it be somebody.
s quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1), if any man is timorous, I am he.
s tempus est llum ire hominis necand; (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NOTE.The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and nus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:
bonus liber melior est quisque qu mior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4), the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
amb exercits sus quisque abeunt doms (Liv. 2.7.1), both armies go away, every man to his home.
uterque utrque erat exercitus in cnspect; (B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).
pnite ante oculs num quemque rgum (Par. 1.11), set before your eyes each of the kings. [p. 191]
Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
qu quisque est sollertior, hc docet rcundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
NOTE.Quisque is generally postpositive
165 : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:
nbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).
166
prm quque tempore<
