AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, bonus impertor, a good commander; stellae lcidae, bright stars; verbum Graecum, a Greek word. [p. 171]
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives:
stellae lcidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Scpi clrus (Cat. 4.21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homins mts reddidit (Inv. 1.2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia Capitn propria trduntur (Rosc. Am. 21), three farms are handed over to Capito as his own.
cnsilium cprunt plnum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of villany.
NOTE.A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb ( 283); it may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or the like ( 393. N.); or it may be used in apposition like a noun ( 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case:
vir fortis, a brave man.
illa mulier, that woman.
urbium mgnrum, of great cities.
cum ducents mlitibus, with two hundred soldiers.
impertor victus est, the general was beaten.
sectae sunt tempestts, storms followed.
NOTE.All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns and to participles.
With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive):
Nsus et Euryalus prm (Aen. 5.294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omn et grti et opibus fruor (Fam. 1.9.21), I enjoy all Csar's favor and resources.
NOTE.An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is occasionally plural (synesis, 280. a): as,Iuba cum Labin capt (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken.
A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals implied (synesis, 280. a):
pars certre part (Aen. 5.108), a part ready to contend.
colniae aliquot dductae, Prsc Latn appellt (Liv. 1.3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitd convict sunt (Tac. Ann. 15.44), a multitude were convicted.
mgna pars raptae (id. 1.9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
NOTE.A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive genitive by which it is limited: as,vlcissimum animlium delphnus est (Plin. N. H. 9.20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. [p. 172]
One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns of different genders. In such cases,
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
multae operae ac labris, of much trouble and toil.
vta mrsque me, my life and character.
s rs, s vir, s tempus llum dgnum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the Nouns form one connected idea:
factus est strepitus et admurmurti; (Verr. 1.45), a noise of assent was made (noise and murmur).
NOTE.This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject ( 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without life:
uxor deinde ac lber amplex (Liv. 2.40), then his wife and children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptsque (F.) societte qudam inter s ntrl sunt incta (N.) (id. 5.4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alliance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural:
rx rgiaque classis n profect (Liv. 21.50), the king and the royal fleet set out together.
ntr inimca sunt lbera cvits et rx (id. 44.24), by nature a free state and a king are hostile.
lgts sortsque rcul exspectands (id. 5.15), that the ambassadors and the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. 289. c):
stultitia et temerits et inistitia ... sunt fugienda (Fin. 3.39), foliy, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things: [p. 173]
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omns, all men (everybody). |
omnia, all things (everything). |
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mirs, ancestors.
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minrs, descendants.
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Rmn, Romans.
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barbar, barbarians.
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lberta, a freedwoman.
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Sabnae, the Sabine wives.
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| sapins, a sage (philosopher). |
amcus, a friend.
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bon, the good (good people). |
bona, goods, property.
|
NOTE.The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter ( 289. a, c) and in words that have become practically nouns.
Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive:
tuus vcnus proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqu cter, his other relatives.
meus aequlis, a man of my own age.
ius familiris Catilna (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostr familirissimus (Fam. 9.13.2), a very close friend of our friend Lepta.
When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an adjective, a noun must be added:
bon, the good; omnia, everything (all things); but,
potentia omnium rrum, power over everything.
Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant association:
fricus [ventus], the southwest wind; Inurius [mnsis], January; vitulna [car], veal (calf's flesh); fera [bstia], a wild beast; patria [terra], the fatherland; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Gall); hberna [castra], winter quarters; trirmis [nvis], a three-banked galley, trireme; argentrius [faber], a silversmith; rgia [domus], the palace; Latnae [friae], the Latin festival.
NOTE.These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in 288. They include the names of winds and months ( 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see 321. d.
Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses:
The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an abstract quality:
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rapt vvere, to live by plunder.
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in rid, on dry ground.
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honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est mtrt, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives 208. d.] [p. 174]
The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea:
omns fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. 287. a):
trste lupus stabuls (Ecl. 3.80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mtbile semper fmina (Aen. 4.569), woman is ever a changing and fickle thing.
malum mihi vidtur esse mors (Tusc. 1.9), death seems to me to be an evil.
A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
istuc ipsum nn esse (Tusc. 1.12), that very not to be.
hmnum est errre, to err is human.
aliud est errre Caesarem nlle, aliud nlle miserr; (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Csar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an adverb:
prmus vnit, he was the first to come (came first).
nllus dubit, I no way doubt.
laet audire, they were glad to hear.
erat Rmae frequns (Rosc. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
srus in caelum redes (Hor. Od. 1.2.45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows:
The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of a quality: as,brevior, rather short; audcior, too bold.
The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as,mns altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE.The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive. [p. 175]
With quam, vel, or nus the Superlative denotes the highest possible degree:
quam plrim, as many as possible.
quam maxim potest (maxim quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir nus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
NOTE 1.A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum, vald, very, or by per or prae in composition ( 267. d. 1): as,vald malus, very bad= pessimus; permgnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
NOTE 2.A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition: as,subrsticus, rather clownish, or by minus, not very; minim, not at all; parum, not enough; nn satis, not much.
NOTE 3.The comparative mirs (for mirs nt, greater by birth) has the special signification of ancestors; so minrs often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see 313. b. For the construction of a substantive after a Comparative, see 406, 407; for that of a clause, see 535. c, 571. a. For the Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (mult etc.), see 414.
When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjectives are in the Comparative:
longior quam ltior acis erat (Liv. 27.48), the line was longer than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
vrior quam grtior (id. 22.38), more true than agreeable.
NOTE.So also with adverbs: as,libentius quam vrius (Mil. 78), with more freedom than truth.
Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive:
disertus magis quam sapins (Att. 10.1.4), eloquent rather than wise.
clr magis quam honest (Iug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
NOTE.A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes connected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed:
clrs miribus quam vetusts (Tac. Ann. 4.61), of a family more famous than old.
vehementius quam caut (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and successionalso medius, [cterus], reliquususually designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
summus mns, the top of the hill.
in ultim plate, at the end of the place.
prior cti, the earlier part of an action.
reliqu captv, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medi (B. G. 1.24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter cteram plnitiem (Iug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
NOTE.A similar use is found in sr (mult) nocte, late at night, and the like. But medium viae, the middle of the way; multum di, much of the day, also occur. [p. 176]
PRONOUNS
[294] A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction ( 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows:
| Personal Pronouns ( 295). |
Interrogative Pronouns ( 333). |
| Demonstrative Pronouns ( 296). |
Relative Pronouns ( 303). |
| Reflexive Pronouns ( 299). |
Indefinite Pronouns ( 309). |
| Possessive Pronouns ( 302). |
Personal Pronouns
The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same constructions as nouns.
The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for distinction or emphasis:
t voc, I call you. But,
quis m vocat? ego t voc, who is calling me? I (emphatic) am calling you.
The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in -um being used partitively ( 346), and that in - oftenest objectively ( 348):
mior vestrum, the elder of you.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su; (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.
NOTE 1.The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively ( 348): as,cupidus vestrum (Verr. 3.224), fond of you; csts vestrum (Cat. 3.29), the guardian of you (your guardian).
NOTE 2.One of themselves is expressed by nus ex sus or ipss (rarely ex s), or nus surum.
The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except the reflexive s. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Relative ( 296. 2, 308. f) [p. 177]
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjectives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives ( 286, 287):
hc proeli fact, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
edem proeli, in the same battle.
ex es aedificis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is:
Caesar et exercitus ius, Csar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar exercitum suum dmsit, Csar disbanded his [own] army.]
s obsids ab es dentur (B. G. 1.14), if hostages should be given by them (persons just spoken of).
h sunt extr prvinciam trns Rhodanum prm; (id. 1.10), they (those just mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
ille minimum propter adulscentiam poterat (id. 1.20), he (emphatic) had very little power, on account of his youth.
An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers (cf. 306):
hc locus est nus qu perfugiant; hc portus, haec arx, haec ra socirum (Verr. 5.126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rrum caput hc erat, hc fns (Hor. Ep. 1.17.45), this was the head of things, this the source.
eam sapientiam interpretantur quam adhc mortlis nm est cnsectus [for id. ..quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
The main uses of hc, ille, iste, and is are the following:
Hc is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes for the latter of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; more rarely for the former, when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often it refers to that which has just been mentioned. [p. 178]
Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.); and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean the former; also (usually following its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean the following.
Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness: often in allusion to the person addressed,hence called the demonstrative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and frequently implies antagonism or contempt.
Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qu:
vnit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litters abs t reddidit (Att. 2.1.1), your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quem, one whom.
eum cnsulem qu nn dubitet (Cat. 4.24), a consul who will not hesitate.
The pronouns hc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea:
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum vidre (Tusc. 1.52), that is in truth a very great thing,to see the soul.
The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned:
nllam virts aliam mercdem dsderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
NOTE.But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Commonly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other construction is preferred:
cum e Simnids artem memoriae pollicrtur: oblvinis, inquit, mllem (Fin. 2.104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, I should prefer, said he, [that] of forgetfulness.
Caesaris exercitus Pompins ad Pharslum vcit, the army of Csar defeated that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
The main uses of dem and ipse are as follows:
When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person or thing already named, is or dem (often with the concessive quidem) is used to indicate that person or thing: [p. 179]
per num servum et eum ex gladitri ld; (Att. 1.16.5), by means of a single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. 4.7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus rgnum occupre cntus est, vel rgnvit is quidem paucs mnss (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or rather he actually reigned a few months.
NOTE.So rarely with ille: as,nunc dextr ingeminns icts, nunc ille sinistr (Aen. 5.457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. [In imitation of the Homeric ὅ γε: cf. Aen. 5.334; 9.796.]
Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
rti splendida et grandis et eadem in prms facta (Brut. 273), an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dcat, negat dem esse in De grtiam (N. D. 1.121), when he says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NOTE.This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis:
turpe mihi ips vidbtur (Phil. 1.9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
tum ipsum (Off. 2.60), at that very time.
NOTE 1.The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
NOTE 2.In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself): in Latin the former would be translated by ipse, the latter by s or ss.
Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows:
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person:
idque re pblicae praeclrum, ipss glrisum (Phil. 2.27), and this was splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omns bon quantum in ipss fuit (id. 2.29), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves).
d capit ipsus generque reservent (Aen. 8.484), may the gods hold in reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person:
vbscum ips recordmin; (Phil. 2.1), remember in your own minds (yourselves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons:
ipse dxit (cf. αὐτὸς ἔφα), he (the Master) said it.
Nmentnus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. 2.8.23), Nomentanus was above [the host] himself [at table]. [p. 180]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see 300. b).
Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real emphasis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate:
m ipse cnslor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not m ipsum, as the English would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
The Reflexive Pronoun (s), and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause:
s ex nv pricit (B. G. 4.25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorgem ad s vocat (id. 1.20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
ss castrs tenbant (id. 3.24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemn s putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar sus cpis subdcit (B. G. 1.22), Csar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhnum esse trnseundum (id. 4.16), Csar decided that he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (me, tu, etc.) and the corresponding possessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used:
mort m obtul; (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc t rgnae ad lmina perfer (Aen. 1.389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tants ns in labribus exercemus (Arch. 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils?
singuls vbs novns ex turms manipulsque vestr simils ligite (Liv. 21.54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine like yourselves.
In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its own clause (Direct Reflexive):
idicr potest quantum habeat in s bon cnstantia (B. G. 1.40), it can be determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] nluit eum locum vacre, n Germn sus fnibus trnsrent (id. 1.28), Csar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
s qua sgnificti virttis lceat ad quam s similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar disposition may attach itself. [p. 181]
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to that subject (Indirect Reflexive):
petirunt ut sibi licret (B. G. 1.30), they begged that it might be allowed them (the petitioners).
Iccius nntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submitttur (id. 2.6), Iccius sends a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legi e grtis git, quod d s optimum idicium fcisset (id. 1.41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high opinion of them.
s obsids ab es (the Helvetians) sibi (Csar, who is the speaker) dentur, s (Csar) cum es pcem esse factrum (id. 1.14), [Csar said that] if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NOTE.Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse: Thus,cum ips de nihil minus grtum futrum sit quam nn omnibus patre ad s plcandum viam (Legg. 2.25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is occasionally found:
sunt ita mult ut es carcer capere nn possit (Cat. 2.22), they are so many that the prison cannot hold them. [Here s could not be used; so also in the example following.]
ibi in proxims vlls ita bipartt furunt, ut Tiberis inter es et pns interesset (id. 3.5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farmhouses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge were between them (the divisions).
nn fuit e contentus quod e praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare: qu fit, Maecns, ut nm, quam sibi sortem seu rati dederit seu fors obicerit, ill contentus vvat (Hor. S. 1.1.1), how comes it, Mcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has assigned him or chance has thrown in his way? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness; and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive:
cr d su virtte aut d ipsus dligenti dsprrent (B. G. 1.40), why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence?
omnia aut ipss aut hosts popults (Q. C. 3.5.6), [they said that] either they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.] [p. 182]
qu s ex hs minus timids exstimr volbant, nn s hostem verr, sed angustis itineris et mgnitdinem silvrum quae intercderent inter ipss (the persons referred to by s above) atque Ariovistum ... timre dcbant (B. G. 1.39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audstis nper dcere lgts Tyndaritns Mercurium qu sacrs anniversris apud es colertur esse subltum (Verr. 4.84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero wavers between apud es colbtur, a remark of his own, and apud s colertur, the words of the ambassadors. es does not strictly refer to the ambassadors, but to the peoplethe Tyndaritani.]
Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:
The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the subject of a suppressed main clause:
Paetus omns librs qus frter suus relquisset mihi dnvit (Att. 2.1), Ptus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) his brother had left him.
The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
Scratem cvs su interfcrunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellowcitizens.
qu poterat sals sua cuiquam nn probr; (Mil. 81), how can any one fail to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc s sect erunt su comits (Cat. 2.10), this man, if his companions follow him.
NOTE.Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed: as,stude snre sibi ipss (Cat. 2.17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own benefit (i.e. ut sn sibi sint).
Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in it:
sus flamms dlte Fdns (Liv. 4.33), destroy Fiden with its own fires (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. 1.32.]
The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
su laus, self-praise.
habtis ducem memorem vestr, obltum su (Cat. 4.19), you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perdit homins cum su similibus servs (Phil. 1.5), abandoned men with slaves like themselves. [p. 183]
The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive or verbal abstract used indefinitely:
contentum sus rbus esse maximae sunt dvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui prposita sit cnservti su (Fin. 5.37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
Inter s (ns, vs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is egularly used to express reciprocal action or relation:
inter s cnflgunt (Cat. 1.25), contend with each other.
inter s continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not those of the possessor:
haec rnmenta sunt mea (Val. 4.4), these are my jewels. [mea is neuter plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
me sunt rdins, mea dscrpti; (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the arrangement. [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostr collgi praeclra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in our college. [nostr is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germn sus cpis castrs dxrunt (B. G. 1.51), the Germans led their troops out of the camp.
To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pronouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pronouns ( 343. a):
domus mea, my house. [Not domus me.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostr.]
patrimnium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tu.]
NOTE 1.Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see 348. a.
NOTE 2.The Interrogative Possessive cius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early Latin: as,cium pecus (Ecl. 3.1), whose flock? The genitive cius is generally used instead.
The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
[petere] ut su clmenti ac mnsutdine ttur (B. G. 2.14), they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
gnrant quem portum petat nllus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71.3), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tu pgnst; (Liv. 38.45.10), did you fight at a fit time?
NOTE.This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possessive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally. [p. 184]
The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) when they are plainly implied in the context:
socium fraudvit, he cheated his partner. [socium suum would be distinctive, his partner (and not another's); suum socium, emphatic, his own partner.]
Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are often used substantively to denote some special class or relation:
nostr, our countrymen, or men of our party.
sus continbat (B. G. 1.15), he held his men in check.
flamma extrma merum (Aen. 2.431), last flames of my countrymen.
Sulln, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompin, the partisans of Pompey.
NOTE.There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see 288).
A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun:
me slus caus; (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostr omnium flt; (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Annin Milnis dom; (Att. 4.3.3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equivalent to ex Ann Milnis dom.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsus rgnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest construction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers: as,iter in ea loca facere coepit, quibus in locs esse Germns audibat (B. G. 4.7), he began to march into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is commonly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as,e qu Alesiae obsdbantur (B. G. 7.77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives: as,T. Balventius, qu superire ann prmum plum dxerat (id. 5.35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as,quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), [and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinating and the later connective force were acquired by qu at such an early period that the steps of the process cannot now be traced. [p. 185]
A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Antecedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence
eum nihil dlectbat quod fs esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was right,
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fs esset, indicating a relation between the two.
A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in which it stands:
ea dis quam cnstituerat vnit (B. G. 1.8), that day which he had appointed came.
pontem qu erat ad Genvam iubet rescind; (id. 1.7), he orders the bridge which was near Geneva to be cut down.
Aduatuc, d quibus supr dximus, domum revertrunt (id. 2.29), the Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
NOTE.This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: as, qulis, quantus, qucumque, etc.
If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules for the agreement of predicate adjectives ( 286, 287):
flium et fliam, qus vald dlxit, un tempore msit, he lost at the same time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grands nt mtrs et parvul lber, qurum utrrumque aets misericor, diam nostram requrit (Verr. 5.129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
tium atque dvitiae, quae prma mortls putant (Sall. Cat. 36), idleness and wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae frgs et frcts qus terra gignit (N. D. 2.37), those fruits and crops which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see 316. a.
A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. 296. a):
mare etiam quem Neptnum esse dcbs (N. D. 3.52), the sea, too, which you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thbae ipsae, quod Boetiae caput est (Liv. 42.44), even Thebes, which is the chief city of Botia. [Not quae.]
NOTE.This rule is occasionally violated: as,flmen quod appelltur Tamesis (B. G. 5.11), a river which is called the Thames. [p. 186]
A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by attraction):
s aliquid ag erum qurum cnsust; (Fam. 5.14), if you should do something of what you are used to do. [For erum quae.]
NOTE.Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: urbem quam statu vestra est (Aen. 1.573), the city which I am founding is yours. Naucratem, quem convenre volu, in nv nn erat (Pl. Am. 1009), Naucrates, whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent:
qurtum genus ... qu in vetere aere alin vacillant (Cat. 2.21), a fourth class, who are staggering under old debts.
nus ex e numer qu part erant (Iug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready.
conirvre pauc, d qu [i.e. conirtine] dcam (Sall. Cat. 18), a few have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
NOTE.So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as, nostra cta, qus tyranns vocs (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. [Here qus agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses, but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is wholly omitted.
The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause:
loc ntra erat haec quem locum nostr dlgerant (B. G. 2.18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative in case:
qus rs in cnsult nostr gessimus attigit hc versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prma innocentis mihi dfnsi est oblta suscp; (Sull. 92), I undertook the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
NOTE.In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. 308. d) and a lemonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause:
quae pars cvittis calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae grtia currum fuit vvs, eadem sequitur (Aen. 6.653), the same pleasure that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qu fit ut nm, quam sibi sortem rati dederit, ill contentus vvat (cf. Hor. S. 1.1.1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice has assigned him? [p. 187]
The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite:
qu decimae leginis aquilam ferbat (B. G. 4.25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qu cgnscerent msit (id. 1.21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
The phrase id quod or quae rs may be used (instead of quod alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea:
[obtrecttum est] Gabni dcam anne Pompi? an utrqueid quod est vrius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offeredshall I say to Gabinius or to Pompey? orwhich is truerto both?
multum sunt in vntinibus, quae rs vrs alit (B. G. 4.1), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
NOTE.But quod alone often occurs: as,Cassius noster, quod mihi mgnae voluptt fuit, hostem ricerat (Fam. 2.10), our friend Cassiuswhich was a great satisfaction to mehad driven back the enemy.
The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause:
frm [amc], cius generis est mgna pnria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the antecedent may stand in the relative clause:
vsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vderat (Verr. 4.63), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
Special Uses of the Relative
In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be observed:
The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in English:
liber quem mihi dedist, the book you gave me.
is sum qu semper fu, I am the same man I always was.
e in loc est d qu tibi loctus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative conjunction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a demonstrative in the last:
erat profectus obviam leginibus Macedonics quattuor, qus sibi concilire pecni cgitbat esque ad urbem addcere (Fam. 12.23.2), he had set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city. [p. 188]
A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other construction in English,particularly of a participle, an appositive, or a noun of agency:
lgs quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qu Galliam vcit, Csar the conqueror of Gaul.
ista glria qu est frctus virttis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit of virtue.
ille qu petit, the plaintiff (he who sues).
qu legit, a reader (one who reads).
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. 307. b):
quae pars cvittis Helvtiae nsgnem calamittem popul Rmn intulerat, ea prnceps poens persolvit (B. G. 1.12), the portion of the Helvetian state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
NOTE.In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: as,ille qu cnsult cavet, ditin t bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthetical clause to characterize a person, like the English such:
quae vestra prdentia est (Cael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to pr vestr prdenti.]
audsss cmoeds vel lctrem vel lyristn, vel, quae mea lberlits, omns (Plin. Ep. 1.15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a lyre-player, orsuch is my liberalityto all of them.
A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the sentence or clause that precedes:
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convnit (B. G. 3.14), Csar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come together, etc.
quae qu audibant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
qurum quod simile factum (Cat. 4.13), what deed of theirs like this?
qu cum vnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NOTE.This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrogative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, with or without and.
A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal relative pronoun: [p. 189]
mortuus Cms qu s contulerat (Liv. 2.21), having died at Cum, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in qus.]
locus qu aditus nn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
rgna unde genus dcis (Aen. 5.801), the kingdom from which you derive your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
The relatives qu, qulis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered simply by as in English:
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset tlis qulem t esse vide; (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I see you are.
tanta dmicti quanta numquam fuit (Att. 7.1.2), such a fight as never was before.
tot mala quot sdera (Ov. Tr. 1.5.47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
The general construction of relatives is found in clauses introduced by relative adverbs: as, ubi, qu, unde, cum, qur.
Indefinite Pronouns
The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
Quis, quispiam, aliquis, qudam, are particular indefinites, meaning some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, and qudam, a certain one, most definite; aliquis and quispiam, some one, stand between the two:
dxerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqu philosoph ita putant, some philosophers think so. [qudam would mean certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hc quaedam muliers pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would be aliquae or nesci quae].
The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations s quis, if any; nisi quis, if any ... not; n quis, lest any, in order that none; num quis (ecquis), whether any; and in relative clauses.
The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of quis after s, nisi, n, and num, and are rather more emphatic:
quid s hc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had desired this?
nisi alicui surum negtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8.2), unless he should employ some one of his friends.
cavbat Pompius omnia, n aliquid vs timrtis (Mil. 66), Pompey took every precaution, so that you might have no fear. [p. 190]
In a particular negative aliquis (aliqu), some one (some), is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, or llus, any, would be required:
istitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. 1.50), justice never does harm to anybody. [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
nn sine aliqu met, not without some fear. But,sine ll met, without any fear.
cum aliquid nn habes (Tusc. 1.88), when there is something you have not.
NOTE.The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and quisquam (llus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is expressed or suggested:
s quisquam, ille sapins fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia lla furunt (Rosc. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
s quid in t peccv; (Att. 3.15.4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any particular case (see 310)].
Quvs or qulibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the corresponding adjective llus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quvs and qulibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and llus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or suggested:
nn cuivs homin contingit adre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. 1.17.36), it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth. [nn cuiquam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. 2.132), anybody you will, provided it be somebody.
s quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. 6.14.1), if any man is timorous, I am he.
s tempus est llum ire hominis necand; (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NOTE.The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and nus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions:
bonus liber melior est quisque qu mior (Plin. Ep. 1.20.4), the larger a good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
amb exercits sus quisque abeunt doms (Liv. 2.7.1), both armies go away, every man to his home.
uterque utrque erat exercitus in cnspect; (B. G. 7.35), each army was in sight of the other (each to each).
pnite ante oculs num quemque rgum (Par. 1.11), set before your eyes each of the kings. [p. 191]
Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
qu quisque est sollertior, hc docet rcundius (Rosc. Com. 31), the keenerwitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
NOTE.Quisque is generally postpositive
165 : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal numerals:
nbilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their nobility).
166
prm quque tempore (Rosc. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.
antquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. 1.45), the most ancient times.
decimus quisque (id. 5.52), one in ten.
NOTE 1.Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion: as,sapientissimus quisque aequissim anim moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest equanimity.
NOTE 2.Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a disparaging sense (how few):
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iris pertus est (Planc. 62), for how few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law!
quotus enim istud quisque fcisset (Lig. 26), for how many would have done this? [i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
Nm, no one, is used of persons only
1. As a substantive:
nminem accsat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nllus:
vir nm bonus (Legg. 2.41), no good man.
NOTE.Even when used as a substantive, nm may take a noun in apposition: as,nm scrptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
Nllus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding cases of nm, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a substantive:
nllum mittitur tlum (B. C. 2.13), not a missile is thrown.
nll hoste prohibente (B. G. 3.6), without opposition from the enemy.
nllus nsector calamittem (Phil. 2.98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nll adiuvante (id. 10.4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nll erant praedns (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.
nll eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For nn nm, nn nllus (nn nll), see 326. a. [p. 192]
Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; cter and reliqu, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two:
proptere quod aliud iter habrent nllum (B. G. 1.7), because (as they said) they had no other way.
n epistulae respond, veni ad alteram (Fam. 2.17.6), one letter I have answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. 2.19), the second class.
icissem ipse m potius in profundum ut cters cnservrem (Sest. 45), I should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servlius cnsul, reliquque magistrts (B. C. 3.21), Servilius the consul and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. 6.3), since it must be that one of the two should prevail.
NOTE.Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly:
dum n sit t dtior alter (Hor. S. 1.1.40), so long as another is not richer than you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
nn ut magis alter, amcus (id. 1.5.33), a friend such that no other is more so.
The expressions alter ... alter, the one ... the other, alius ... alius, one ... another, may be used in pairs to denote either division of a group or reciprocity of action:
alter dmicant, alter victrem timent (Fam. 6.3), one party fights, the other fears the victor.
alteram alter praesidi esse iusserat (B. C. 3.89), he had ordered each (of the two legions) to support the other.
ali gladis adoriuntur, ali fragments saeptrum (Sest. 79), some make an attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
alius ex ali causam quaerit (B. G. 6.37), they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontmur (Pl. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another (the other) of the objects referred to:
alter cnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledcere, aliud accsre (Cael. 6), it is one thing to slander, another to accuse.
Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses briefly a double statement:
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks another thing).
iussit alis alib fodere (Liv. 44.33), he ordered different persons to dig in different places.
ali ali loc resistbant (B. C. 2.39), some halted in one place, some in another. [p. 193]
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person:
silent lgs inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
NOTE.In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number ( 286):
rti est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent:
adsum qu fc (Aen. 9.427), here am I who did it.
t, qu scs, omnem dligentiam adhibbis (Att. 5.2.3), you, who know, will use all diligence.
vidte quam dspicimur omns qu sumus mnicipis (Phil. 3.15), see how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verbform in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun:
amantium rae amris integrti est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
nn omnis error stultitia dcenda est (Div. 2.90), not every error should be called folly.
Corinthus lmen Graeciae exstnctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortu sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
NOTE.So rarely (by synesis, 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an ablative with cum: as,dux cum aliquot prncipibus capiuntur (Liv. 21.60), the general and several leading men are taken.
When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third:
s t et Tullia valtis ego et Cicer valmus (Fam. 14.5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
NOTE.In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for predicate adjectives (see 287. 2-4). [p. 194]
If the subjects are connected by disjunctives ( 223. a), or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular:
quem neque fids neque is irandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
sentus populusque Rmnus intellegit (Fam. 5.8), the Roman senate and people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habit essmus (id. 11.20), neither Csar nor I should have been considered.]
fma et vta innocentis dfenditur (Rosc. Am. 15), the reputation and life of an innocent man are defended.
est in e virts et probits et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam. 13.28A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense of duty, and the greatest devotion.
NOTE.So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often agrees with one and is understood with the others:
intercdit M. Antnius Q. Cassius tribn plbis (B. C. 1.2), Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hc mihi et Peripattic et vetus Acadmia concdit (Acad. 2.113), this both the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular; but the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are thought of ( 280. a):
(1) sentus haec intellegit (Cat. 1.2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hberna exercitus redit (Liv. 21.22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plbs patribus scessit (Sall. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praeds agbant (Iug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitd lapids conicerent (B. G. 2.6), when such a crowd were throwing stones.
NOTE 1.The point of view may change in the course of a sentence: as,equittum omnem ... quem habbat praemittit, qu videant (B. G. 1.15), he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
NOTE 2.The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes used collectively to denote a group: as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; mles, the soldiery; eques, the cavalry.
Quisque, each, and nus quisque, every single one, have very often a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. 282. a):
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (Pl. Curc. 180), let every one keep his own (let them keep every man his own).
NOTE.So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius ... alium alter ... alterum ( 315. a). [p. 195]
Omission of Subject or Verb
The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted:
A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic:
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
An indefinite subject is often omitted:crders, you would have supposed; putmus, we (people) think; dcunt, ferunt, perhibent, they say.
A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject expressed or understood ( 208. d):
di atque criter pgntum est (B. G. 1.26), they fought long and vigorously.
The verb is sometimes omitted:
Dc, faci, ag, and other common verbs are often omitted in familiar phrases:
qursum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue lenem [cgnscs], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?)
quid? quod, what of this, that ...? (what shall I say of this, that ... ?) [A form of transition.]
Aeolus haec contr; (Aen. 1.76), olus thus [spoke] in reply.
tum Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
d melira [duint]! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better things)!
unde [vens] et qu [tendis]? (Hor. S. 2.4.1), where from and whither bound? [Cf. id. 1.9.62for the full form.]
The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub junctive:
t coninx (Aen. 4.113), you [are] his wife.
quid erg? audcissimus ego ex omnibus (Rosc. Am. 2), what then? am I the boldest of all?
omnia praeclra rra (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contenti et comparti d dubus honests utrum honestius (Off. 1.152), there may often occur a comparison of two honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. 6.136), hear what is first to be accomplished. [Direct: quae peragenda prius?] [p. 196]
PARTICLES
Adverbs
The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as,celeriter re, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see 241. b). They also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested: as, splendid mendx, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter, too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see 20. g. N.).
167
Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs.
A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see 308. g):
e [ = in ea] impnit vsa (Iug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.
e mlits impnere (B. G. 1.42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses).
apud es qu [ = ad qus] s contulit (Verr. 4.38), among those to whom (whither) he resorted.
qu eum necsset unde [ = qu] ipse ntus esset (Rosc. Am. 71), one who should have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
condicins misers administrandrum prvincirum ubi [ = in quibus] sevrits perculsa est (Flacc. 87), O! wretched terms of managing the provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regularly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives; so occasionally other perfect participles:
praeclr facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done).
multa fact dicta (Off. 1.104), many witty sayings.
A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modified by an adverb:
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum lt rgem (Aen. 1.21), a people ruling far and wide.
NOTE.Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force bat which contain a verbal idea:
hinc abiti; (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cgitem d obviarr itine (Att. 13.50), what I think about going to meet (him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.] [p. 197]
A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are obviam, palam, sometimes contr, and occasionally others:
fit obviam Cldi; (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. [Cf. the adjective obvius: as,s ille obvius e futrus nn erat (id. 47), if he was not likely to fall in with him.]
haec commemor quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which are well-known.
alia probbilia, contr alia dcimus (Off. 2.7), we call some things probable, others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contr contradicts a previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
er semper lnits (Ter. And. 175), my master's constant (always) gentleness. [An imitation of a Greek construction.]
NOTE.In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in c above).
For propius, prdi, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see 432.
The following adverbs require special notice:
Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it:
nn verbs slum sed etiam v; (Verr. 2.64), not only by words, but also by force.
hc quoque maleficium (Rosc. Am. 117), this crime too.
Nunc
168 means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is rarely used of the immediate past.
Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With negatives iam means (no) longer.
Tum, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum (tum-ce, cf. nunc):
ut iam ante dx, as I have already said before.
s iam satis aettis atque rboris habret (Rosc. Am. 149), if he had attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).
nn est iam lnitt locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat nstittum, which had come to be a practice (had now been established).
nunc quidem dlta est, tunc flrbat (Lael. 13), now ('t is true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum rgnbat, at the time when he reigned. [p. 198]
Cert means certainly, cert (usually) at least, at any rate:
cert sci, I know for a certainty; ego cert, I at least.
Prmum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prm means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time:
hc prmum senti, this I hold in the first place.
aeds prm ruere rbmur, at first we thought the house was falling.
NOTE.In enumerations, prmum (or prm) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dnique or postrm, lastly, finally. Thus,prmum d genere bell, deinde d mgnitdine, tum d impertre dligend (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.
Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc.:
hc quidem vidre licet (Lael. 54), THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[scrits] speci quidem blanda, sed repse mults locs repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, it is true, attractive, but in reality to be rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
N ... quidem means not even or not ... either. The emphatic word or words must stand between n and quidem:
sed n Iugurtha quidem quitus erat (Iug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet either.
ego autem n rsc possum quidem is qus vald am; (Att. 2.19.1), but I cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
NOTE.Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the first person. Thus,equidem adprobb (Fam. 2.3.2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS
169
[323] Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood that precedes them:
scrptum sentu et popul; (Cat. 3.10), written to the senate and people.
ut es [parts] snrs et cnfrmrs (Mil. 68), that you might cure and strengthen those parts.
neque me prdenti neque hmns cnsilis frtus (Cat. 2.29), relying neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. [p. 199]
[a]
Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also commonly connect similar constructions:
hs igitur quam physics potius crdendum exstims (Div. 2.37), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers?
hominem callidirem vd nminem quam Phorminem (Ter. Ph. 591), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. 407).
ut nn omne vnum sc nn omnis ntra vetustte coacscit (Cat. M. 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in m quasi in tyrannum (Phil. 14.15), against me as against a tyrant.
[b]
Two or more cordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, 601. c):
omns d, homins, all gods and men.
summ, medi, nfim, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
ira, lgs, agrs, lberttem nbs relqurunt (B. G. 7.77), they have left us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
[c]
1. Where there are more than two cordinate words etc., a conjunction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):
aut aere alin aut mgnitdine tribtrum aut iniri potentirum (B. G. 6.13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the powerful.
at sunt mrs et anxi et rcund et difficils sens (Cat. M. 65), but (you say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it):
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antnius nsgne odium omnium hominum (Phil. 14.8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomination of all men.
utrumque git graviter, auctritte et offnsine anim nn acerb; (Lael. 77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a series, even when there is no grouping apparent:
vce volt mtque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
cram cnsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. 7.20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
qurum auctrittem dgnittem volunttemque dfenders (Fam. 1.7.2), whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
[d]
Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction:
multae et gravs causae, many weighty reasons.
vir lber a fortis (Rep. 2.34), a free and brave man. [p. 200]
[e]
Often the same conjunction is repeated in two cordinate clauses:
et ... et (-que ... -que), both ... and.
aut ... aut, either ... or.
vel ... vel, either ... or. [Examples in 324. e.]
sve (seu) ... sve (seu), whether ... or. [Examples in 324. f.]
[f]
Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly or wholly losing their adverbial force:
nunc ... nunc, tum ... tum, iam ... iam, now ... now.
modo ... modo, now ... now.
simul ... simul, at the same time ... at the same time.
qu ... qu, now ... now, both ... and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simul grtis agit, simul grtultur (Q. C. 6.7.15), he thanks him and at the same time congratulates him.
rumpunt saepe vitia amcrum tum in ipss amcs tum in alins (Lael. 76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends themselves, now against strangers.
qu mars qu fmins (Pl. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
[g]
Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla tively as conjunctions:
ut (rel.) ... ita, sc (dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).
tam (dem.) ... quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.
cum (rel.) ... tum (dem.), while ... so also; not only ... but also.
[324] The following Conjunctions require notice:
[a]
Et, and, simply connects words or clauses; -que combines more closely into one connected whole. -que is always enclitic to the word connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected:
cum coniugibus et lbers, with [their] wives and children.
ferr gnque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.]
aqu et gn interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]
[b]
Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable:
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, without the slightest distinction).
sus atque disciplna, practice and theory beside (the more important or less expected).
atque ego crd, and yet I believe (for my part). [p. 201]
[c]
Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of comparison and likeness:
simul atque, as soon as.
nn secus (nn aliter) ac s, not otherwise than if.
pr e ac dbu, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).
aequ ac t, as much as you.
haud minus ac iuss faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see 328. a.
[d]
Sed and the more emphatic vrum or vr, but, are used to introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after negatives (not this ... but something else). At (old form ast) introduces with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the others; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force perceptible. Atqu, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod s, but if, and if, now if, is used to continue an argument.
NOTE.Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause continuing the same thought: as,impetum hosts ferre nn poturunt ac terga vertrunt (B. G. 4.35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
[e]
Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of vol) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction is not always observed:
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in m facults (Lael. 17), but who am I or what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. 5.118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vta tlis fuit vel fortn vel glri; (Lael. 12), his life was such either in respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
s propinqus habeant imbcillirs vel anim vel fortn; (id. 70), if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, for example, or in both).
aut derum aut rgum fli; (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.]
implict vel s diturn vel etiam officis (id. 85), entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude the first.] [p. 202]
[f]
Sve (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either ... or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two names for the same thing:
sve inrdns sve quod ita putret (De Or. 1.91), either laughingly or because he really thought so.
sve deae seu sint volucrs (Aen. 3.262), whether they (the Harpies) are goddesses or birds.
[g]
Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with no alternative force: as,vel minimus, the very least.
[h]
Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim (for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you) and its negative neque enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vta) quae est sla vta nminanda. nam dum sumus incls in hs compgibus corporis, mnere qudam necessittis et grav opere perfungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy task. For the soul is from heaven.
hrum trium sententirum nll prrsus adsentior. nec enim illa prma vra est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one is n't true.
[i]
Erg, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than erg and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirc, for this reason, on this account, is regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, s, ut, n), and refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi vidtur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. cert. erg et e quibus vnit iam ut morerentur et e quibus ventrum est miser. mihi ita vidtur. nm erg nn miser. (Tusc. 1.9.) Death seems to me to be an evil. It is wretched, then, since it is an evil. Certainly. Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are wretched. So it appears to me. There is no one, therefore, who is not wretched.
quia ntra mtr nn potest, idcirc vrae amcitiae sempiternae sunt (Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friendships are eternal. [p. 203]
[j]
Autem, enim, and vr are postpositive
170 ; so generally igitur and often tamen.
[k]
Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vr>, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque erg, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of course ( 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles
171
In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points are to be observed:
Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative:
nm nn audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear).
nn possum nn cnfitr; (Fam. 9.14.1), I must confess.
ut ... n nn timre quidem sine aliqu timre possmus (Mil. 2), so that we cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
Many compounds or phrases of which nn is the first part express an indefinite affirmative:
nn nllus, some; nn nll; (=aliqu), some few.
nn nihil (=aliquid), something.
nn nm; (=aliquot), sundry persons.
nn numquam (=aliquotins), sometimes.
Two negatives of which the second is nn (belonging to the predicate) express a universal affirmative:
nm nn, nllus nn, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. nn nm, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]
nihil nn, everything. [Cf. nn nihil, something.]
numquam nn, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. nn numquam, sometimes.]
A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary (Litotes, 641):
nn semel (=saepissim), often enough (not once only).
nn haec sine nmine dvom veniunt (Aen. 2.777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods.
haec nn nimis exqur; (Att. 7.18.3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NOTE.Compare nn nllus, nn nm, etc., in a above. [p. 204]
A general negation is not destroyed
1. By a following n ... quidem, not even, or nn modo, not only:
numquam t nn modo tium, sed n bellum quidem nisi nefrium concupst; (Cat. 1.25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordinate member:
eaque nescibant nec ubi nec qulia essent (Tusc. 3.4), they knew not where or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a cordinate member:
neque satis mrr neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough nor conjecture.
The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of negation in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions:
nll (neutr) crd (not nn crd ll), I do not believe either (I believe neither).
sine ll percul; (less commonly cum nll), with no danger (without any danger).
nihil umquam audv icundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. neg haec esse vra (not dc nn esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.)
In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly expressed by neque (nec), not by et nn:
hosts terga vertrunt, neque prius fugere dstitrunt (B. G. 1.53), the enemy turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
NOTE.Similarly nec quisquam is regularly used for et nm; neque llus for et nllus; nec umquam for et numquam; nve (neu), for et n.
The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of a preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather):
causa igitur nn bona est? immo optima (Att. 9.7.4), is the cause then not a good one? on the contrary, the best.
Minus, less (especially with s, if, qu, in order that), and minim, least, often have a negative force:
s minus possunt, if they cannot. [For qu minus, see 558. b.]
audcissimus ego ex omnibus? minim (Rosc. Am. 2), am I the boldest of them all? by no means (not at all). [p. 205]
QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker:
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like:
rogvit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct: quid est, what is it?]
nesci ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct: ubi sum, where am I?]
Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in English.
172
NOTE.The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunctive ( 574).
A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word:
tne id veritus es (Q. Fr. 1.3.1), did you fear that?
hcine vir usquam nisi in patri moritur (Mil. 104), shall this man die anywhere but in his native land?
is tibi mortemne vidtur aut dolrem timre (Tusc. 5.88), does he seem to you to fear death or pain?
The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted:
patre tua cnsilia nn sents (Cat. 1.1), do you not see that your schemes are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)
NOTE.In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nnne, an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a negative answer:
nnne animadvertis (N. D. 3.89), do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?
NOTE.In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means simply whether. [p. 206]
The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nnne:
meministne m in sent dcere (Cat. 1.7), don't you remember my saying in the Senate?
rctne interpretor sententiam tuam (Tusc. 3.37), do I not rightly interpret your meaning?
NOTE 1.This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no? shades off into eh?
NOTE 2.The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. 2.3.317), how big? qune mal (id. 2.3.295), by what curse?
A question concerning some special circumstance is formed by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb as in English ( 152):
quid exspects (Cat. 2.18), what are you looking forward to?
qu igitur haec spectant (Fam. 6.6.11), whither then is all this tending?
care, ubi es (Ov. M. 8.232), Icarus, where are you?
quod vectgal vbs ttum fuit? quem socium dfendistis? cui praesidi classibus vestrs fuistis? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you? what ally have you defended? whom have you guarded with your fleets?
NOTE.A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of the voice: as,
qulis vir erat! what a man he was!
quot calamitts pass sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
qu studi cnsentiunt (Cat. 4.15), with what zeal they unite!
The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to interrogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis:
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9), where in the world are we?
in qu tandem urbe hc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they maintain this?
NOTETandem is sometimes added to verbs:
ain tandem (Fam. 9.21), you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxrem dxit Antiph; (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got married.
Double Questions
A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an, anne, or, annn, necne, or not, in the second; and usually an in the third, if there be one: [p. 207]
utrum nescs, an pr nihil id puts (Fam. 10.26), is it that you don't know, or do you think nothing of it?
vsne L. Domitium an vs Domitius dseruit (B. C. 2.32), did you desert Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you?
quaer servsne an lbers (Rosc. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vs an fortnam utrusque popul gnrtis (Liv. 21.10), is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you do not know?
NOTE.Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect questions it is commoner than annn. In poetry -ne ... -ne sometimes occurs.
The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first member; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second:
Gabni dcam anne Pompi an utrque (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. 3.41), are these your words or not?
quaesv Catiln in convent apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. 2.13), I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Laeca's or not.
Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) alone asks the question,usually with indignation or surprise:
an t misers puts ills (Tusc. 1.13), what! do you think those men wretched?
an iste umquam d s bonam spem habuisset, nisi d vbs malam opninem anim imbibisset (Verr. 1.42), would he ever have had good hopes about himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you?
Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum may ask a question to which there is no alternative:
utrum est in clrissims cvibus is, quem ... (Flacc. 45), is he among the noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative questions:
utrum ... an ... an
utrum ... annn (necne, see 335. N.)
---- ... an (anne)
-ne ... an
---- ... -ne, necne
-ne ... necne
-ne ... -ne
NOTE.From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,quaer num inist aut improb fcerit (Off. 3.54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things supposed, not which of the two he did. [p. 208]
Question and Answer
There is no one Latin word in common use meaning simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with nn or a similar negative:
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tcum, was he with you? nn erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam nov? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sn, oh! nothing.
An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is sometimes used to answer a direct question:
1. For YES:
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vr, in truth, true, no doubt, yes.
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ita vr, certainly (so in truth), etc. |
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etiam, even so, yes, etc. |
sn quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. |
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ita, so, true, etc. |
ita est, it is so, true, etc. |
sn, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
cert, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO:
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nn, not so.
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nll mod, by no means.
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minim, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. 329. a).
minim vr, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
nn quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
nn hercle vr, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules!)
Examples are:
quidnam? an laudtins? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut nn respondre (Acad. 2.104), to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sn (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they say she is? (is her beauty as it is said?) oh! yes.
miser erg Archelus? cert s inistus (Tusc. 5.35), was Archelaus wretched then? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis? minim (De Or. 2.295), do you despise these things? not at all.
volucribusne et fers? minim vr (Tusc. 1.104), to the birds and beasts? why, of course not.
ex tu anim sententi t uxrem habs? nn hercle, ex me anim sententi; (De Or. 2.260), Lord! no, etc.
In answering a double question, one member of the alternative, or some part of it, must be repeated:
vdist an d audt nntis?egomet vd; (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see it or are you repeating something you have heard?I saw it myself. [p. 209]
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
[338] The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of uninflected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing; fidi-cen-, playing on the lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instrumental were lost
173 except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative ( 38. a), perhaps never had a suffix of its own.
174 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have had no single primitive meaning; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however, have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative; and its function was often performed by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where ( 421). To indicate the case-relationsespecially those of placemore precisely, Prepositions (originally adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see 36, phonetic decay), and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by caseforms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, 402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, 421 ff.)
The word csus, case, is a translation of the Greek πτῶσις, a falling away (from the erect position). The term πτῶσις was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ( 35. g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called ὀρθή, erect (csus rctus). The later name Nominative (csus nmintvus) is from nmin, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (csus genetvus) is a translation of γενική [πτῶσις], from γένος (class), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (csus datvus, from d) is translated from δοτική, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accstvus, from accs) is a mistranslation of αἰτιατική (the case of causing), from αἰτία, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (voctvus, from voc) is translated from κλητική (the case of calling). The name Ablative (abltvus, from abltus, aufer) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost. [p. 210]
NOMINATIVE CASE
The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative:
Caesar Rhnum trnsre dcrverat (B. G. 4.17), Csar had determined to cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see 295. a.
The nominative may be used in exclamations:
n dextra fidsque (Aen. 4.597), lo, the faith and plighted word!
ecce tuae litterae d Varrne (Att. 13.16), lo and behold, your letters aoout Varro!
NOTE.But the accusative is more common ( 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
The Vocative is the case of direct address:
Tiberne pater, t, sncte, precor (Liv. 2.10), O father Tiber, thee, holy one, I pray.
rs omnis mihi tcum erit, Hortns (Verr. 1.33), my whole attention will be devoted to you, Hortensius.
A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative:
aud t, populus Albnus (Liv. 1.24), hear, thou people of Alba.
The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person:
qu moritre ruis (Aen. 10.811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
cnsrem trabete salts (Pers. 3.29), robed you salute the censor.
The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte est (virtte), success attend your (valor):
iubrem t macte virtte esse (Liv. 2.12), I should bid you go on and prosper in your valor.
macte nov virtte puer (Aen. 9.641), success attend your valor, boy!
NOTE.As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. [p. 211]
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows:
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I. Genitive with Nouns: |
1. Of Possession ( 343). |
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2. Of Material ( 344). |
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3. Of Quality ( 345). |
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4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part (Partitive, 346). |
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5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling ( 348). |
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II. Genitive with Adjectives: |
1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) ( 349). |
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2. Of Specification (later use) ( 349. d). |
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III. Genitive with Verbs: |
1. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. ( 350, 351, 354). |
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2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) ( 352). |
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case:
libr Cicernis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.
inimc Caesaris, Csar's enemies, or the enemies of Csar.
talentum aur, a talent of gold.
vir summae virttis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents:
vacti labris, a respite FROM toil.
petti cnsults, candidacy FOR the consulship.
rgnum cvittis, royal power OVER the state.
Possessive Genitive
The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:
Alexandr canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pomp (Sall. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.
Ariovist mors (B. G. 5.29), the death of Ariovistus.
perditrum temerits (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
NOTE 1.The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alexander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective Genitive; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, 347).
NOTE 2.The noun limited is understood in a few expressions:
ad Castoris [aeds] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]
Flaccus Claud, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromach; (Aen. 3.319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. [p. 212]
For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective is often used,regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal pronouns ( 302. a):
liber meus, my book. [Not liber me.]
alina percula, other men's dangers. [But also alirum.]
Sullna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]
The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive):
haec domus est patris me, this house is my father's.
iam m Pomp ttum esse scs (Fam. 2.13), you know I am now all for Pompey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Brt est (Fam. 12.4.2), the highest praise is due both to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
compend facere, to save (make of saving).
lucr facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
NOTE.These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in 343 that a predicate noun bears to an appositive ( 282, 283).
An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited by a genitive in the predicate:
neque su idic [erat] discernere (B. C. 1.35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
ciusvs hominis est errre (Phil. 12.5), it is any man's [liability] to err.
negvit mris esse Graecrum, ut in convvi virrum accumberent muliers (Verr. 2.1.66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timid est optre necem (Ov. M. 4.115), but't is the coward's part to wish for death.
stult erat sprre, sudre impudentis (Phil. 2.23), it was folly (the part of a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqu, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. [Not sapins (neuter) est, etc.]
NOTE 1.This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE 2.A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:
mentr nn est meum [not me], it is not for me to lie.
hmnum [for hominis] est errre, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).
A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in apposition (Appositional Genitive) ( 282):
nmen nsniae (for nmen nsnia), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochae (for oppidum Antiocha, the regular form), the city of Antioch. [p. 213]
Genitive of Material
The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (cf. 403):
Genitive of Quality
The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is modified by an adjective:
vir summae virttis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virttis.]
mgnae est dlbertinis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
mgn formca labris (Hor. S. 1.1.33), the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille autem su idic (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own) judgment.
NOTE.Compare Ablative of Quality ( 415). In expressions of quality, the genitive or the ablative may often be used indifferently: as, praestant prdenti vir, a man of surpassing wisdom; maxim anim hom, a man of the greatest courage. In classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the ablative; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with ius, and to nouns modified by mgnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases ius mod, cius mod (equivalent to tlis, such; qulis, of what sort):
ius mod sunt tempestts cnsectae, ut; (B. G. 3.29), such storms followed, that, etc.
The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define measures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
mrus sdecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see 417.
Partitive Genitive
Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below):
pars mlitum, part of the soldiers. quis nostrum, which of us?
nihil erat reliqu, there was nothing left.
nm erum (B. G. 7.66), not a man of them.
mgnam partem erum interfcrunt (id. 2.23), they killed a large part of them. [p. 214]
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like alius, alter, nllus, etc.:
nus tribnrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octvus (Hor. S. 2.3.296), the eighth of the wise men.
mlia passuum sescenta (B. G. 4.3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
mior frtrum, the elder of the brothers.
animlium fortira, the stronger [of] animals.
Subrum gns est long maxima et bellicsissima Germnrum omnium (B. G. 4.1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of all the Germans.
alter cnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
nlla erum (B.G. 4.28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns:
tantum spat, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummrum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loc (or locrum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time ( 397. a).
plna urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid nov, what news? (what of new?)
paulum frment (B. C. 1.78), a little grain.
pls dolris (B. G. 1.20), more grief.
su aliquid timris (B. C. 2.29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
NOTE 1.In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a partitive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
NOTE 2.The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used partitively:nihil nov (genitive), nothing new; but,nihil memorbile (nominative), nothing worth mention (not nihil memorbilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place:
parum t, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecniae, money enough (enough of money).
plrimum ttus Galliae equitt valet (B. G. 5.3), is strongest of all Gaul in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. 1.9), where in the world are we (where of nations)?
ubicumque terrrum et gentium (Verr. 5.143), wherever in the whole world.
rs erat e iam loc ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point that, etc.
e miserirum (Iug. 14.3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loc, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case:
sequimur t, sncte derum (Aen. 4.576), we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sncte deus ( 49. g. N.)]
nigrae lnrum (Plin. H. N. 8.193), black wools. [For nigrae lnae.]
expedt mlitum (Liv. 30.9), light-armed soldiers. [For expedt mlits.]
hominum cncts (Ov. M. 4.631), all men. [For cncts homins; cf. e.] [p. 215]
Cardinal numerals (except mlia) regularly take the Ablative with (ex) or d instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also qudam, a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally:
nus ex tribns, one of the tribunes. [But also, nus tribnrum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex ills (Iug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
qudam ex mlitibus, certain of the soldiers.
nus d mults (Fin. 2.66), one of the many.
pauc d nostrs cadunt (B. G. 1.15), a few of our men fall.
hominem d comitibus mes, a man of my companions.
Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns take a partitive genitive:
uterque cnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
nus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of:
ns omns, all of us (we all). [Not omns nostrum.]
quot sunt hosts, how many of the enemy are there?
cav inimcs, qu mult sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
mult mlits, many of the soldiers.
nm Rmnus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the Object:
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crits tu, affection for you.
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dsderium t, longing for rest.
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vacti mneris, relief from duty.
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grtia benefic, gratitude for kindness.
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fuga malrum, refuge from disaster.
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precti derum, prayer to the gods.
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contenti honrum, struggle for office.
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opni virttis, reputation for valor.
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NOTE.This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Csar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Csar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example: the phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). [p. 216]
The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive pronoun or other derivative adjective:
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. odium me (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.]
laudtor meus (Att. 1.16.5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostr laudtor (id. 1.14.6).]
Cldinum crmen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As we say, the Nathan murder.]
metus hostlis (Iug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear).
ea quae facibat, tu s fdci facere dcbat (Verr. 5.176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance).
neque neglegenti tu, neque id odi fcit tu (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive:
anim multrum rrum percursi; (Tusc. 4.31), the mind's traversing of many things.
A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objective genitive:
odium in Antnium (Fam. 10.5.3), hate of Antony.
merita erg m (id. 1.1.1), services to me.
meam in t piettem (id. 1.9.1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. 12.29), an attack on the city.
excessus vt (Fin. 3.60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vtae, Tusc. 1.27.]
adopti in Domitium (Tac. Ann. 12.25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late and bold extension of this construction.]
NOTE.So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. 366. b): as,long bell mteria (Tac. H. 1.89), resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the Objective Genitive.
Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive:
avid laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastdisus litterrum, disdaining letters.
iris pertus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, ire, cf. 418.]
memorem vestr, obltum su (Cat. 4.19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
ratinis et rtinis experts (Off. 1.50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae cnsutdinis impert; (B. G. 4.22), unacquainted with our customs. [p. 217]
plnus fide, full of good faith.
omnis spe egnam (Tac. Ann. 1.53), destitute of all hope.
tempesttum potentem (Aen. 1.80), having sway over the storms.
impotns rae (Liv. 29.9.9), ungovernable in anger.
conirtinis particips (Cat. 3.14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affnis re capitlis (Verr. 2.2.94), involved in a capital crime.
nsns culpae (Liv. 22.49), innocent of guilt.
Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a particular act:
s quem tu amantirem cgnvist; (Q. Fr. 1.1.15), if you have become acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitd nsolns bell (B. C. 2.36), a crowd unused to war.
erat Iugurtha appetns glriae mlitris (Iug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for military glory.
NOTE 1.Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly governed by the verb to which they belong: as,Sp. Maelium rgnum appetentem intermit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mlius, who was aspiring to royal power.
NOTE 2.Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) even when they express a disposition or character: as,virts quam ali ipsam temperantiam dcunt esse, ali obtemperantem temperantiae praecepts et eam subsequentem (Tusc. 4.30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
Verbals in -x ( 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later Latin:
istum et tencem prposit virum (Hor. Od. 3.3), a man just and steadfast to his purpose.
circus capx popul (Ov. A. A. 1.136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cib vnque capcissimus (Liv. 9.16.13), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine).
The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists (Genitive of Specification):
callidus re mlitris (Tac. H. 2.32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. 3.30.11), scant of water.
ntus anim patern (id. 2.2.6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fess rrum (Aen. 1.178), weary of toil.
integer vtae scelerisque prus (Hor. Od. 1.22.1), upright in life, and unstained by guilt.
NOTE.The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with adjectives requiring an object of reference ( 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge; pauper, want; prus, innocence; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see 418. For Adjectives of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see 385. c. For Adjectives with anim (locative in origin), see 358. [p. 218]
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or the Genitive of the object:
Memin takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaintances, or of things which one has experienced.
So oblvscor in the opposite sense,to forget literally, to lose all memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memin; (Phil. 5.17), I remember Cinna.
utinam avum tuum meminisss (id. 1.34), oh! that you could remember your grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, cius statuam in Isthm meminisse t dcis (Att. 13.32), Postumius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Sron Epicr dogmata (Acad. 2.106), Siron remembers all the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab alis audta meminrunt (De Or. 2.355), they remember many things that they have heard from others.
ttam causam obltus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam oblvscere Gris (Aen. 2.148), from henceforth forget the Greeks (i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if you had never known them).
Memin takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something (often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So oblvscor in the opposite sense,to disregard, or dismiss from the mind,and the adjective obltus, careless or regardless.
ipse su meminerat (Verr. 2.136), he was mindful of himself (of his own interests).
faciam ut hius loc dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nec m meminisse pigbit Elissae, dum memor ipse me; (Aen. 4.335), nor shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint vercundiae (Off. 1.122), let them cherish modesty.
hmnae nfrmittis memin; (Liv. 30.31.6), I remember human weakness.
oblvsc temporum merum, meminisse ctinum (Fam. 1.9.8), to disregard my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
nec tamen Epicr licet oblvsc; (Fin. 5.3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
oblvscere caedis atque incendirum (Cat. 1.6), turn your mind from slaughter and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts). [p. 219]
NOTE 1.With both memin and oblvscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are regularly in the Genitive; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regularly in the Accusative; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NOTE 2.Memin in the sense of mention takes the Genitive: as,eundem Achillam cius supr meminimus (B. C. 3.108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned above.
Reminscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense of call to mind, recollect; the Genitive in the more figurative sense of be mindful of:
dulcs morins reminscitur Args (Aen. 10.782), as he dies he calls to mind his beloved Argos.
reminscertur et veteris incommod popul Rmn et prstinae virttis Helvtirum (B. G. 1.13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]
Recordor, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative:
recordre cnsnsum illum thetr; (Phil. 1.30), recall that unanimous agreement of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordmin omns cvls dissnsins (Cat. 3.24), call to mind all the civil wars.
NOTE.Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12); it is never used with a personal object, but may be followed by d with the ablative of the person or thing (cf. 351. N.):
d t recordor (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.
d ills (lacrims) recordor (Planc. 104), I am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which is put in the accusative (cf. 390. c).
So admone, commone, commonefaci, commonef. But mone with the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilna admonbat alium egesttis, alium cupidittis suae (Sall. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
es hc mone; (Cat. 2.20), I give them this warning.
quod vs lx commonet (Verr. 3.40), that which the law reminds you of.
NOTE.All these verbs often take d with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:
saepius t admone d syngraph Sittin; (Fam. 8.4.5) I remind you again and again of Sittius's bond.
officium vostrum ut vs mal cgtis commonrier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty. [p. 220]
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty:
arguit m furt, he accuses me of theft.
peclts damntus (pecniae pblicae damntus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for embezzlement.
vide nn t absoltum esse improbittis, sed ills damnts esse caedis (Verr. 2.1.72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are
capitis, as in damnre capitis, to sentence to death.
miesttis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state).
repetundrum [rrum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
vt damntus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. successful in one's effort.
pecniae (damnre, idicre, see note).
dupl etc., as in dupl condemnre, condemn to pay twofold.
NOTE.The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecniae damnre (Gel. 20.1.38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecniae idict essent (id.xx.1.47), how much money they were adjudged to pay, in a mere suit for debt; cnfess aeris ac dbit idict (id.xx.1. 42), adjudged to owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary to assume an ellipsis of crmine or idici.
Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are
1. The Ablative of Price: regularly of a definite amount of fine, and often of indefinite penalties (cf. 416):
Frusints terti parte agr damnt; (Liv. 10.1), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with d, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatie expressions:
d ale, for gambling; d ambit, for bribery.
d pecnis repetunds, of extortion (cf. 352. a).
inter scris (Rosc. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
d v et miesttis damnt; (Phil. 1.21), convicted of assault and treason.
NOTE.The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the penalty: as,ad mortem (Tac. Ann. 16.21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines. [p. 221]
Verbs of Feeling
Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object which excites the feeling.
Verbs of pity, as misereor and misersc, take the genitive:
misermin familiae, idics, misermin patris, misermin fl (Flacc. 106), have pity on the family, etc.
miserre anim nn dgna ferentis (Aen. 2.144), pity a soul that endures unworthy things.
miserscite rgis (id. 8.573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
NOTE.But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as,commnem condicinem miserr (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative of the person affected:
qus nfmiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. 1.35), who are neither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
m miseret parietum ipsrum (Phil. 2.69), I pity the very walls.
m cvittis mrum piget taedetque (Iug. 4), I am sick and tired of the ways of the state.
decemvirrum vs pertaesum est (Liv. 3.67), you became tired of the decemvirs.
With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be expressed by an infinitive or a clause:
neque m paenitet mortls inimcitis habre (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry to have deadly enmities.
nn dedisse istunc pudet; m quia nn accp piget (Pl. Pseud. 282), he is ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
NOTE.Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as subject: as,nn t haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you?
The impersonals interest and rfert take the Genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause:
Cld intererat Milnem perre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
aliquid quod illrum magis quam su rtulisse vidrtur (Iug. 111), something which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
vide enim quid me intersit, quid utrusque nostrum (Fam. 7.23.4), for 1 see what is for my good and for the good of us both. [p. 222]
Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or rfert:
quid tu id rfert? mgn; (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer intererat vestr qu patrs estis (Plin. Ep. 4.13.4), it would be very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.
NOTE.This is the only construction with rfert in classic prose, except in one passage in Sallust (see example above).
The accusative with ad is used with interest and rfert to express the thing with reference to which one is interested:
mgn ad honrem nostrum interest (Fam. 16.1), it is of great consequence to our honor.
rfert etiam ad frcts (Varr. R. R. 1.16.6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
NOTE 1.Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with rfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption):
quid id ad m aut ad meam rem rfert (Pl. Per. 513), what difference does that make to me or to my interests?
quid rferat intr ntrae fns vvent (Hor. S. 1.1.49), what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire?
nn rferre ddecor (Tac. Anu. 15.65), that it makes no difference as to the disgrace.
NOTE 2.The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the genitive (cf. 409. a. N.):
convvium vcnrum comple; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacch pinguisque fernae (Aen. 1.215), they fill themselves with old wine and fat venison.
n quis auxil egeat (B. G. 6.11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod dfnsinis indigeat (Rosc. Am. 34), what is there that needs defence?
quae ad cnslandum miris ingen et ad ferendum singulris virttis indigent (Fam. 6.4.2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
NOTE.Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see 409. a, <*>01), except ege, which takes either case, and indige. But the genitive is by a Greek idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation and want (cf. 357. b. 3):
abstint rrum (Hor. Od. 3.27.69), refrain from wrath.
operum solts (id. 3.17.16), free from toils.
dsine mollium querellrum (id. 2.9.17), have done with weak complaints. [p. 223]
Genitive with Special Verbs
The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potr rrum, to be master of affairs:
illus rgn potr; (Fam. 1.7.5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanths slem dominr et rrum potr putat (Acad. 2.126), Cleanthes thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
NOTE.But potior usually takes the ablative (see 410).
Some other verbs rarely take the genitive
1. By analogy with those mentioned in 354:
neque hius ss veritus fminae prmriae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive:
fastdit me (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastdisus.]
studet tu (quoted N. D. 3.72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studisus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek:
istitiaene prius mrer, bellne labrum (Aen. 11.126), shall I rather admire his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sposit ciceris nec longae invdit avnae (Hor. S. 2.6.84), nor did he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
labrum dcipitur (Hor. Od. 2.13.38), he is beguiled of his woes.
m labrum levs (Pl. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
The apparent Genitive anim (really Locative) is used with a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:
Antiph m excruciat anim (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in my mind).
qu pendet anim (Tusc. 4.35), who is in suspense.
m anim fallit (Lucr. 1.922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, dsipibam mentis (Pl. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger anim, sick at heart; cnfsus anim, disturbed in spirit.
snus mentis aut anim (Pl. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following:
A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation):
d immortls, mercimn lepid; (Pl. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charming bargain!
foederis heu tacit; (Prop. 4.7.21), alas for the unspoken agreement! [p. 224]
The genitive is often used with the ablatives caus, grti, for the sake of; erg, because of; and the indeclinable nstar, like; also with prdi, the day before; postrdi, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honris caus, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
verb grti, for example.
ius lgis erg, on account of this law.
equus nstar montis (Aen. 2.15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of a mountain).
laterum tenus (id. 10.210), as far as the sides.
NOTE 1.Of these the genitive with caus is a development from the possessive genitive and resembles that in nmen nsniae ( 343.d). The others are of various origin.
NOTE 2.In prose of the Republican Period prdi and postrdi are thus used only in the expressions prdi (postrdi) ius di, the day before (after) that (cf. the eve, the morrow of that day). Tacitus uses the construction with other words: as,postrdi nsidirum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see 432. a. Tenus takes also the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clmor cael, Aen. 5.451) are regarded as survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings:
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puer librum, he gave the boy a book, or fcit mihi iniriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning (to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasionally confounded, as in 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following:
| 1. Indirect Object (general use): |
1. With Transitives ( 362). |
|
2. With Intransitives ( 366-372). |
| 2. Special or Idiomatic Uses: |
1. Of Possession (with esse) ( 373). |
|
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) ( 374). |
|
3. Of Reference (datvus commod) ( 376-381). |
|
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) ( 382). |
|
5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) ( 383, 384). |
[p. 225]
INDIRECT OBJECT
The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object ( 274). It is usually denoted in English by the objective with to:
cdite tempor, yield to the occasion.
prvincia Cicern obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimcs nn crdimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES
The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see 274):
d tibi librum, I give you a book.
illud tibi affrm; (Fam. 1.7.5), this I assure you.
commend tibi ius omnia negtia (id. 1.3), I put all his affairs in your hands (commit them to you).
dabis profect misericordiae quod rcundiae negvist; (Deiot. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litters t mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. 2.17), your messenger delivered to me a letter from you.
Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone:
mihi id aurum crdidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equ n crdite (Aen. 2.48), put not your trust in the horse.
concessit sentus postultin tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concdere amcs quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may wish.
Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative of the End of Motion ( 426, 427):
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion prevails:
litters qus ad Pompium scrps; (Att. 3.8.4), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nn qu habrem quod tibi scrberem (id. 4.4A), not that I had anything to write to you] [p. 226]
litterae extempl Rmam scrptae (Liv. 41.16), a letter was immediately written [and sent] to Rome.
hosts in fugam dat (B. G. 5.51), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut m dem fugae (Att. 7.23), to take to flight.]
omns rem ad Pompium dferr volunt (Fam. 1.1), all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea:
mihi litters mittere (Fam. 7.12), to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi ms; (id. 7.19), I sent you that book.
nec quicquam quod nn mihi Caesar dtulerit (id. 4.13), and nothing which Csar did not communicate to me.
crs ut mihi vehantur (id. 8.4.5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius ali subsidium ferrent (B. G. 2.26), while one lent aid to another.
Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the person and the Ablative of the thing
175 :
dnat corns sus, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
dnat sus corns, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. 7.772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omns arms exuit (B. G. 5.51), he stripped them all of their arms.
NOTE 1.Interdc, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Ablative of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing:
aqu et gn alicui interdcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular formula for banishment.]
interdxit histrinibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
fmins (dat.) purpurae s interdcmus (Liv. 34.7), shall we forbid women the wearing of purple?
NOTE 2.The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. Intercld and prohibe sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:
hsce omns adits ad Sullam intercldere (Rosc. Am. 110), to shut these men off from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. ut commet Caesarem interclderet (B. G. 1.48), to shut Csar off from supplies.]
hunc (oestrum) arcbis pecor (Georg. 3.154), you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. illum arcuit Galli (Phil. 5.37), he excluded him from Gaul.]
slstitium pecor dfendite (Ecl. 7.47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf. ut s contumlis inimcrum dfenderet (B. C. 1.22), to defend himself from the slanders of his enemies.] [p. 227]
Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive:
nntibantur haec eadem Crin (B. C. 2.37), these same things were announced to Curio. [Active: nntibant (qudam) haec eadem Crin.]
nec docend Caesaris propinqus ius spatium datur, nec tribns plbis su percul dprecand facults tribuitur (id. 1.5), no time is given Csar's relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
prvinciae prvts dcernuntur (id. 1.6), provinces are voted to private citizens.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES
The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any Intransitive verb whose meaning allows:
cdant arma togae (Phil. 2.20), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesar respondet, he replies to Csar.
Caesar respondtur, a reply is given to Csar (Csar is replied to). [Cf. 372.]
respond maxims crminibus (Phil. 2.36), I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique veniat (id. 2.119), that it may so turn out to each.
NOTE 1.Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, therefore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. 362. a).
NOTE 2.Cd, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the Dative of the person: as,cdere alicui possessine hortrum (cf. Mil. 75), to give up to one the possession of a garden.
Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a kind of indirect object (cf. 367. a. N.2):
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persude).
quis huic re testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is fnis popultinibus fuit (Liv. 2.30.9), this put an end to the raids.
The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. 367. d, 377):
lgtus frtr (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his brother).
ministr sceleribus (Tac. Ann. 6.36), agents of crime. [Cf. sditinis ministr (id. 1.17), agents of sedition.]
miseris sus remedium mortem exspectre (Sall. Cat. 40), to look for death as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. slus merum miserirumst remedium (Ter. Ad. 294).]
NOTE.The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of 367. a. N.2 and 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to which it serves as an indirect object. [p. 228]
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,
176 take the Dative:
cr mihi invids, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque gnscit, he spares and pardons me.
gnsce patri dolr (Liv. 3.48), excuse a father's grief.
subven patriae, opitulre conlgae (Fam. 10.10.2), come to the aid of your country, help your colleague.
mihi nn displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.
nn omnibus servi; (Att. 13.49), I am not a servant to every man.
nn parcam operae (Fam. 13.27), I will spare no pains.
sc mihi persus; (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius dbbit gnscere s minus ius fmae parcere vidbor quam ante cnsulu; (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legin Caesar cnfdbat maxim; (B. G. 1.40.15), in this legion Csar trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. Thus: invidre, to envy, is literally to look askance at; servre is to be a slave to; sudre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuv, adiuv, help; laed, injure; iube, order; dfici, fail; dlect, please:
hc pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculs nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]
NOTE 1.Fd and cnfd take also the Ablative ( 431): as,multum ntr loc cnfdbant (B. G. 3.9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
NOTE 2.Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such arepraest esse, be on hand (cf. adesse); mrem gerere, humor (cf. mrigerr); grtum facere, do a favor (cf. grtificr); dict audins esse, be obedient (cf. oboedre); cui fidem habbat (B. G. 1.19), in whom he had confidence (cf. cnfdbat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such arebene (male, pulchr, aegr, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniriam facere, do injustice to; diem dcere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere grtis, express one's thanks; habre grtiam, feel thankful; referre grtiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be necessary; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expnsum) ferre (esse), credit (charge); honrem habre, to pay honor to. [p. 229]
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adlor, aemulor, dspr, praestlor, medeor:
adltus est Antni (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony.
adlr Nernem (Tac. Ann. 16.19), to flatter Nero.
pcem nn dsprs (Att. 8.15.3), you do not despair of peace.
salt dsprre vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.
Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intransitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning:
177
part cvium cnsulunt (Off. 1.85), they consult for a part of the citizens.
cum t cnsuluissem (Fam. 11.29), when I had consulted you.
metuns puers (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nec metuunt des (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also time.]
prspicite patriae (Cat. 4.3), have regard for the state.
prspicere sdem senectt; (Liv. 4.49.14), to provide a habitation for old age. [So also prvide.]
A few verbal nouns (as nsidiae, ambush; obtemperti, obedience) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs:
nsidiae cnsul (Sall. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. nsidior).
obtemperti lgibus (Legg. 1.42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemper).
sibi ips respnsi; (De Or. 3.207), an answer to himself (cf. responde).
NOTE.In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf. 366. a, b).
The Dative is used
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is allowed:
quod mihi maxim lubet (Fam. 1.8.3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi nn licret (id. 6.8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male:
mihi ipse numquam satisfaci; (Fam. 1.1), I never satisfy myself.
optim vir maledcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere re pblicae (Sall. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to benefit the state.
NOTE.These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as such by the Romans. Thus,satis offici me, satis illrum voluntt qu m hc petvrunt factum esse arbitrbor (Verr. 5.130), I shall consider that enough has been done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me. [p. 230]
3. With grtificor, grtulor, nb, permitt, plaud, prob, stude, supplic, excell:
Pompi s grtificr putant (Fam. 1.1), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service.
grtulor tibi, m Balbe (id. 6.12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permitt respondre (N. D. 3.4), I give you leave to answer.
mihi plaud ipse dom; (Hor. S. 1.1.66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimc M. Font vbs ac popul Rmn minentur, amc ac propinqu supplicent vbs (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives are beseeching you.
NOTE.Misce and iung sometimes take the dative (see 413. a. N.). Haere usually takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as,haerentem capit cornam (Hor. S. 1.10.49), a wreath clinging to the head.
The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially with verbs of contending ( 413. b):
contendis Homr (Prop. 1.7.3), you vie with Homer. [In prose: cum Homr.]
placitne etiam pgnbis amr (Aen. 4.38), will you struggle even against a love that pleases you?
tibi certat (Ecl. 5.8), vies with you. [tcum.]
differt sermn (Hor. S. 1.4.48), differs from prose. [ sermne, 401.]
later abdidit nsem (Aen. 2.553), buried the sword in his side. [in latere, 430.]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see 428. h.
Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. 362. a):
cui cum rx crucem minrtur (Tusc. 1.102), and when the king threatened him with the cross.
Crtnsibus obsids impervt (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi gnscere (Vell. 2.30), to pardon one's self everything.
Ascanine pater Rmns invidet arcs (Aen. 4.234), does the father envy Ascanius his Roman citadels? [With invide this construction is poetic or late.]
With the passive voice this dative may be retained:
qu iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgr aequum cnset (Liv. 40.15.16), who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a favor.
singuls cnsribus dnri trecent impert sunt (Verr. 2.137), three hundred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est fcundiae virts (Quint. 12.3.9), to Scaevola has been granted excellence in oratory. [p. 231]
Indirect Object with Compounds
Many verbs compounded with ao, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pr, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the indirect object:
neque enim adsentior es (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quantum ntra hominis pecudibus antecdit (Off. 1.105), so far as man's nature is superior to brutes.
s sibi ipse cnsentit (id. 1.5), if he is in accord with himself.
virtts semper volupttibus inhaerent (Fin. 1.68), virtues are always connected with pleasures.
omnibus negtis nn interfuit slum sed praefuit (id. 1.6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestt obsequ artis est (Fam. 1.9.21), it is a point of skill to yield to the weather.
nec umquam succumbet inimcs (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his foes.
cum et Brtus cuilibet ducum praeferendus vidrtur et Vatnius nll nn esset postferendus (Vell. 2.69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.
In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat sus, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere impertrem bell, to put a man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an indirect object (see also b, 371, 388. b).
NOTE 1.Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object: as,n offermus ns perculs (Off. 1.83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
NOTE 2.The construction of 370 is not different in its nature from that of 362, 366, and 367; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. 388. b):
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ns oppgnat (Fam. 1.1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comittum aggred; (Phil. 12.25), who would dare encounter a man well attended?
mnus obre (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. [p. 232]
The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take the dative:
s ille obvius e futrus nn erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in his way.
mihi obviam vnist; (Fam. 2.16.3), you came to meet me.
When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned in 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition:
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. 4.24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coninct mcum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum hc concurrit ipse Eumens (Nep. Eum. 4.1), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculs in criam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
gnis qu est ob s offsus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contr istrum impets Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to withstand their attacks. [Cf. s quis vbs error obiectus (Caec. 5), if any mistake has been caused you.]
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. 2.304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
NOTE.But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used impersonally in the passive ( 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. 365):
cui parc potuit (Liv. 21.14), who could be spared?
nn modo nn invidtur ill aett vrum etiam favtur (Off. 2.45), that age (youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempor serviendum est (Fam. 9.7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
NOTE.In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as,cr invideor (Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied?
Dative of Possession
The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession:
est mihi dom pater (Ecl. 3.33), I have a father at home (there is to me).
homin cum de similitd est (Legg. 1.25), man has a likeness to God.
quibus ops nllae sunt (Sall. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.
NOTE.The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession: as,liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's else): est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).
With nmen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the Nominative is also common: [p. 233]
(1) cui fricn fuit cgnmen (Liv. 25.2), whose (to whom) surname was Africanus.
puer ab inopi Egeri inditum nmen (id. 1.34), the name Egerius was given the boy from his poverty.
(2) puer nmen est Mrcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nmen Arethsa (Verr. 4.118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
NOTE.In early Latin the dative is usual; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the dative; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf. 343. d): as,Q. Metell Macedonic nmen inditum est (Vell. 1.11), to Quintus Metellus the name of Macedonicus was given.
Dsum takes the dative; so occasionally absum (which regularly has the ablative):
hc num Caesar dfuit (B.G. 4.26), this only was lacking to Csar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. 1.48), what can be wanting to him?
Dative of the Agent
The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to denote the person on whom the necessity rests:
haec vbs prvincia est dfendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you).
mihi est pgnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me: cf. mihi est liber, I have a book, 373. N.).
This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ( 196).
NOTE 1.The Ablative of the Agent with ab ( 405) is sometimes used with the Second Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger expression is desired:
quibus est vbs cnsulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two datives, quibus and vbs, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibus vbs prvidendam (Rab. 4), that the matter must be attended to by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.]
NOTE 2.The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Possession or a development of the Dative of Reference ( 376).
The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect participles (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with other parts of the verb:
mihi dlbertum et cnstittum est (Leg. Agr. 1.25), I have deliberated and resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi rs prvsa est (Verr. 4.91), the matter has been provided for by me.
sc dissimillims bstiols commniter cibus quaeritur (N. D. 2.123), so by very different creatures food is sought in common. [p. 234]
The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers with almost any passive verb:
neque cernitur ll (Aen. 1.440), nor is seen by any.
flx est dicta sorr (Ov. Fast. 3.1.597), she was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina Narciss fovbtur (Tac. Ann. 12.1), lia Ptina was favored by Narcissus.
The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used after videor, seem:
vidtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
ds aliter vsum [est] (Aen. 2.428), it seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipsus animum (Fam. 4.13.5), I seem (to myself) to see the soul of the man himself.
NOTE.The verb probre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative of Reference ( 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:
haec sententia et ill et nbs probbtur (Fam. 1.7.5), this view met both his approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
hc cnsilium plrsque nn probbtur (B. C. 1.72), this plan was not approved by the majority. [But also, cnsilium cncts probbtur (id. 1.74).]
Dative of Reference
The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage,
179 as denoting the person or thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi ars (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tus rs tibi habt; (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula of divorce).
laudvit mihi frtrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me; laudvit frtrem meum would imply no such motive).
merits mactvit honrs, taurum Neptn, taurum tibi, pulcher Apoll; (Aen. 3.118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to thee, beautiful Apollo.
NOTE.In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word: [p. 235]
iter Poens vel corporibus sus obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.).
s in cnspectum nauts dedit (Verr. 5.86), he put himself in sight of the sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
verstur mihi ante oculs (id. 5.123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me before the eyes).
The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,
180 but is merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me. etc.):
Plat mihi nus nstar est centum mlium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me) Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Ecl. 1.7), he will always be a god to me (in my regard).
quae est ista servits tam clr homin (Par. 41), what is that slavery according to the view of this distinguished man?
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative plural:
oppidum prmum Thessaliae venientibus ab pr; (B. C. 3.80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laev parte sinum intrant (Liv. 26.26), on the left as you sail up the gulf (to one entering).
est urbe gresss tumulus (Aen. 2.713), there is, as you come out of the city, a mound (to those having come out).
NOTE.The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by vlns, volns (participles of nl, vol), or by some similar word:
ut quibusque bellum invts aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. 1.59), as each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut mlitibus labs volentibus esset (Iug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the task willingly.
The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations:
qu mihi fortnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116), where can I get a stone?
qu tibi, Till; (id. 1.6.24), what use for you, Tillius? [p. 236]
The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections:
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. 2.274), ah me!
vae victs (Liv. 5.48), woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. 380.]
NOTE.To express FORmeaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf ofthe ablative with pr is used:
pr patri mor; (Hor. Od. 3.2.13), to die for one's country.
ego b pr t (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated.
181
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.
182 It is really a faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. 1.3.15), pray what is Celsus doing?
su sibi servit patr; (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Cannius (Fam. 9.2), but, look you, of a sudden comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argent; (Pl. Truc. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vs, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself)?
Dative of Separation
Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 401).
Such are compounds of ab, d, ex, and a few of ad:
aureum e dtrxit amiculum (N. D. 3.83), he took from him his cloak of gold.
hunc mihi terrrem ripe (Cat. 1.18), take from me this terror.
vtam adulscentibus vs aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of life.
nihil enim tibi dtrxit sentus (Fam. 1.5B), for the senate has taken nothing from you.
nec mihi hunc errrem extorqur vol; (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.
NOTE.The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It represents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative [p. 237]
The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prepositionthus generally with names of things ( 426. 1):
illum ex percul ripuit (B. G. 4.12), he dragged him out of danger.
NOTE.Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb: as,mihi praeda d manibus ripitur (Verr. 2.1.142), the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in only a few constructions, as follows:
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of the person or thing affected:
re pblicae cld sunt (Iug. 85.43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a disaster to the state).
mgn su nostrs fuit (B. G. 4.25), it was of great service to our men (to our men for great use).
tertiam aciem nostrs subsidi msit (id. 1.52), he sent the third line as a relief to our men.
sus salt fuit (id. 7.50), he was the salvation of his men.
vnit facile quod ds cord esset (Liv. 1.39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NOTE 1.This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjective, except one of degree (mgnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
NOTE 2.The word frg used as an adjective is a dative of this kind:
cgis m dcere inimcum Frg (Font. 39), you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homins satis forts et pln frg (Verr. 3.67), men brave enough and thoroughly honest. Cf. er frg bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for something. [See 122. b.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :
locum castrs dligit (B. G. 7.16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptu canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
receptu sgnum (Phil. 13.15), the signal for retreat.
optvit locum rgn (Aen. 3.109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum nsidis circumspectre (Liv. 21.53), to look about for a place for an ambush. [Cf. locum sditinis quaerere (id. 3.46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see 505. b. [p. 238]
Dative with Adjectives
The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or towards which it tends.
NOTE.The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites:
183
nihil est tam ntrae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amant put; (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castrs idneum locum dlgit (B. G. 1.49), he selected a place suitable for a camp.
tribn nbs sunt amc; (Q. Fr. 1.2.16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest nmin (N. D. 1.124), he can be gracious to nobody.
mgns autem virs prosperae semper omns rs (id. 2.167), but to great men everything is always favorable.
sds huic nostr nn importna sermn (De Or. 3.18), a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours.
cui fund erat affnis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was next neighbor.
convenienter ntrae vvere (Off. 3.13), to live in accordance with nature (ὁμολογουμένως τῇ φύσει).
NOTE 1.So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with dem: as,invtum qu servat idem facit occdent (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same as one who kills him.
NOTE 2.Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also the adverbs aequ, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun dem has regularly atque or a relative:
s parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to his beauty (like as his beauty).
t suspicor esdem rbus quibus m ipsum commovr; (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are disturbed by the same things by which I am.
Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative might be expected:
Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end; but regularly the Dative of persons:
aptus ad rem mlitrem, fit for a soldier's duty.
locus ad nsidis aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nbs tile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing. [p. 239]
Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the Accusative with in or erg:
cmis in uxrem (Hor. Ep. 2.2.133), kind to his wife.
dvna bonits erg homins (N. D. 2.60), the divine goodness towards men.
d benevolenti quam quisque habeat erg ns (Off. 1.47), in regard to each man's good will which he has towards us.
grtirem m esse in t (Fam. 11.10), that I am more grateful to you.
Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive:
184
quod ut ill proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optre dbtis (Manil. 48), which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hc quondam proprium popul Rmn (id. 32), this was once the peculiar characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrque ss maxim necessrius (Att. 9.7A), since you are especially bound to both. [Dative.]
prcrtor aequ utrusque necessrius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are used wholly or approximately as nouns:
amcus Cicern, friendly to Cicero. But, Cicernis amcus, a friend of Cicero; and even, Cicernis amcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
crticus et ius aequlis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent the pan.
h erant affns istus (Verr. 2.36), these were this man's fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (me, tu, etc.), and also in vr similis, probable:
domin similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you're like your master (your master's like).
ut essmus simils derum (N. D. 1.91), that we might be like the gods.
est similis mirum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. 1.121), to be like his father.
smia quam similis turpissima bstia nbs (N. D. 1.97, quoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
s enim hc ill simile sit, est illud huic (id. 1.90), for if this is like that, that is like this.
NOTE.The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in 349, but possessive (cf. 343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proxim, see 432. a. [p. 240]
ACCUSATIVE CASE
The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative (run a race, fight a battle, see 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. 273. N.1). From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see 387. a). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf. 265.3).
185 ). It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows:
|
I. Primary Object: |
1. Directly affected by the Action ( 387. a). |
|
2. Effect of the Action Thing produced ( 387. a). Cognate Accusative ( 390). |
|
II. Two Accusatives: |
1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) ( 393). |
|
2. Of Asking or Teaching ( 396). |
|
3. Of Concealing ( 396. c). |
|
III. Idiomatic Uses: |
1. Adverbial ( 397. a). |
|
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) ( 397. b). |
|
3. Of Extent and Duration ( 423, 425). |
|
4. Of Exclamation ( 397. d). |
|
5. Subject of Infinitive ( 397. e). |
Direct Object
The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative ( 274).
The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action of the verb:
(1) Brtus Caesarem interfcit, Brutus killed Csar.
(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pgnre, to fight a battle, 390.]
NOTE.There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. Thus time, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimcum time, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in nl timre, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as,Helvtis supervrunt Rmn, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superbat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change of meaning: as,rds, you are laughing; but m rds, you're laughing at me. [p. 241]
The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative ( 275):
Brtus Caesarem interfcit, Brutus killed Csar.
Caesar Brt interfectus est, Csar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedifictur, the house is building (being built).
Certain special verbs require notice.
Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive:
meum csum lctumque dolurunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity and sorrow.
s nn Acrisium rsissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. 3.16.5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
rdtur ab omn convent; (Hor. S. 1.7.22), he is laughed at by the whole assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see 390. a.
NOTE.Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:
gemns gnminiam (Georg. 3.226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. dole.]
festnre fugam (Aen. 4.575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. acceler.]
cmpts rsit crns (Hor. Od. 4.9.13), she burned with love for his well-combed locks. [Cf. adam.]
Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trns, and praeter, and a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf. 370. b):
mortem obre, to die (to meet death).
cnsultum ineunt (Liv. 2.28), they enter upon the consulship.
nminem convn; (Fam. 9.14), I met no one.
s nsulam adsset (B. G. 4.20), if he should go to the island.
trnsre flmen (id. 2.23), to cross the river (cf. 395).
cvs qu circumstant sentum (Cat. 1.21), the citizens who stand about the senate.
NOTE.Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, ddecet, dlectat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit:
ita ut vs decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
m pedibus dlectat claudere verba (Hor. S. 2.1.28), my delight is (it pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi m fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
ivit m tibi tus litters prfuisse (Fam. 5.21.3), it pleased me that your literary studies had profited you.
t nn praeterit (Fam. 1.8.2), it does not escape your notice. [p. 242]
NOTE 1.So after later in poetry and post-classical prose: as,latet plrsque (Plin. N. H. 2.82), it is unknown to most persons.
NOTE 2.These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic signification. Hence most of them are also used personally.
NOTE 3.Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:
ita nbs decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us.
hostque Rma latet (Sil. It. 12.614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are:
ferre foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim).
vincere idicium (spnsinem, rem, hc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. 6.688.]
aequor nvigre (Aen. 1.67), to sail the sea. [As if it were trnsre, 388. b.]
maria aspera ir; (id. 6.351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. 6.324). [The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]
nocts dormre, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
NOTE 1.These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction (cf. the second example under 390).
NOTE 2.In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative:
quid tibi istanc tcti est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? [Cf. tang.]
mrbund bstiam (Ap. Met. 4.16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. mror.]
vtbundus castra (Liv. 25.13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vt.]
Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, having their natural object in the ablative with d ( 273. N. 2):
priusquam Pompnius d ius advent cgnsceret (B. C. 3.101), before Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. ius advent cgnit, his arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see 354. b. For the Accusative after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative of Kindred Signification:
ttirem vtam vvere (Verr. 2.118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aettem hominum vvbat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the third generation of men.
servittem servre, to be in slavery.
core societtem, to [go together and] form an alliance. [p. 243]
Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative of the quality:
vnum redolns (Phil. 2.63), smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. 11.18), the honey tastes [of] grass.
olre malitiam (Rosc. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae nts pots, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrnum (Arch. 26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and foreign accent.
The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets:
huic errr similem [errrem] nsnre (Hor. S. 2.3.62), to suffer a delusion like this.
saltre Cyclpa (id. 1.5.63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchnlia vvere (Iuv. 2.3), to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resonre (Ecl. 1.5), to recho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. 2.693), it thundered on the left.
dulce rdentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. 1.22.23), sweetly smiling, sweetly prattling.
acerba tuns (Aen. 9.794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. to look daggers.]
torvum clmat (id. 7.399), he cries harshly.
A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very common as cognate accusative (cf. 214. d, 397. a):
Empedocls multa alia peccat (N. D. 1.29), Empedocles commits many other errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrast; (De Or. 3.184), in this I agree with Theophrastus.
multum t ista fefellit opni; (Verr. 2.1.88), you were much deceived in this expectation (this expectation deceived you much).
pls vale, I have more strength.
plrimum potest, he is strongest.
quid m ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. 2.32), what harm do those things do me?
hc t mone, I give you this warning (cf. d. N.1).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N.1).
quid moror, why do I delay?
quae homins arant, nvigant, aedificant (Sall. Cat. 2.7), what men do in ploughing, sailing, and building.
So in many common phrases:
s quid ille s velit (B. G. 1.34), if he should want anything of him (if he should want him in anything).
numquid, Geta, aliud m vs (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you, Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form of leave-taking.]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hc erat quod (Aen. 2.664), was it for this that, etc.?] [p. 244]
NOTE 1.In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some other construction:
in hc edem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bons rbus laetr, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, d, or ex.]
d testment monre, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, 351.]
offic admonre, to remind one of his duty. [Also: d offici.]
NOTE 2.In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as,multum, pls, plrimum; plrumque, for the most part, generally; cterum, ctera, for the rest, otherwise, but; prmum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why; facile, easily. So in the comparative of adverbs ( 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.
TWO ACCUSATIVES
Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addition to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or (2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative.
Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct object:
Spartace, quem enim t potius appellem (Phil. 13.22), O Spartacus, for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
Cicernem cnsulem crere, to elect Cicero consul.
m augurem nminvrunt (Phil. 2.4), they nominated me for augur.
cum grtis ageret quod s cnsulem fcisset (De Or. 2.268), when he thanked him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy).
hominem prae s nminem putvit (Rosc. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man in comparison with himself.
ducem s praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader.
NOTE.The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as,homins mts reddidit et mnsuts (Inv. 1.2), has made men mild and gentle.
In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative ( 284):
rx ab sus appelltur (B. G. 8.4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active<*> su eum rgem appellant.] [p. 245]
Secondary Object
The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected by the action of the verb.
Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by the preposition:
Caesar Germns flmen tricit (B. C. 1.83), Csar throws the Germans across the river.
idem is irandum adigit Afrnium (id. 1.76), he exacts the same oath from Afranius.
qus Pompius omnia sua praesidia circumdxit (id. 3.61), whom Pompey conducted through all his garrison.
NOTE 1.This construction is common only with trdc, trici, and trnsport. The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trns, and usually with compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used:
dnec rs sus trns Halyn flmen tricerent (Liv. 38.25), till they should get their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Pad triectus Cremnam (id. 21.56), the army was conveyed across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, 429. a).
NOTE 2.The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb: as,Belgae Rhnum trduct sunt (B. G. 2.4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
NOTE 3.The double construction indicated in 395 is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative,the same which was formerly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trici comes to mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):
gladi hominem tricit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iaci has lost all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trns, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum tricit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaci has become simply a verb of motion, and trici is hardly distinguishable from trnse.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if tricit were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative:
hom triectus est gladi, the man was pierced with a sword.
Rhodanus triectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical triectus lra (Aen. 2.273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of two constructions: (1) eum tricit lra, he rove thongs through him,
186 and (2) eum tricit lrs, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (lra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the latter (eum) is made the subject. [p. 246]
Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing (secondary object):
m sententiam rogvit, he asked me my opinion.
tium dvs rogat (Hor. Od. 2.16.1), he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetrem postulbs (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the prtor.
aedls populum rogre (Liv. 6.42), to ask the people [to elect] diles.
docre puers elementa, to teach children their A B C's.
NOTE.This construction is found in classical authors with r, posc, reposc, rog, interrog, flgit, doce.
Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, pet (ab), quaer (ex, ab, d); usually posc (ab), flgit (ab), postul (ab), and occasionally others:
pcem ab Rmns petirunt (B. G. 2.13), they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaesvit ex m P. Apulius (Phil. 6.1), what Publius Apuleius asked of me.
With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the person or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N.2):
Caesar sententiam rogtus est, Csar was asked his opinion.
id ab e flgitbtur (B. C. 1.71), this was urgently demanded of him.
NOTE.The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rog, and of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs:
fuerant hc rogt; (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. 7.771), I am asked for my Llaps.
Cicer cncta doctus (Sall. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a preposition: as,n postulantur quidem vrs senectte (Cat. M. 34), strength is not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
The verb cl, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually intransitive late, lie hid, an accusative of the person:
nn t clv sermnem T. Amp; (Fam. 2.16.3), I did not conceal from you the talk of Titus Ampius.
nec lature dol frtrem Innis (Aen. 1.130), nor did the wiles of Juno escape the notice of her brother.
NOTE 1.The accusative of the person with late is late or poetical ( 388. c. N.1).
NOTE 2.All the double constructions indicated in 396 arise from the wavering meaning of the verbs. Thus doce means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person; cl, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rog, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary. [p. 247]
Idiomatic Uses
The Accusative has the following special uses:
The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial Accusative):
id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aettis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure; maximam partem, for the most part.
virle (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in apposition).
quod s, but if (as to which, if); quod nisi, if not.
The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected:
caput nectentur (Aen. 5.309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound about the head).
rdents oculs suffect sanguine et gn; (id. 2.210), their glaring eyes bloodshot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
nda gen (id. 1.320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
femur trgul ictus (Liv. 21.7.10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
NOTE.This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice ( 156. a):
intile ferrum cingitur (Aen. 2.510), he girds on the useless steel.
nod sins collcta fluents (id. 1.320), having her flowing folds gathered in a knot.
umers nsternor pelle lenis (id. 2.722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's skin.
prtinus induitur faciem cultumque Dinae (Ov. M. 2.425), forthwith she assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
The Accusative is used in Exclamations:
fortntam rem pblicam, O fortunate republic! [Cf. fortnta mor<*> (Phil. 14.31), oh, happy death! ( 339. a).]
m nflcem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I!
m miserum, ah, wretched me!
n quattuor rs (Ecl. 5.65), lo, four altars!
ellum (=em illum), there he is! [Cf. 146. a. N.2.]
eccs (=ecce es), there they are, look at them!
pr deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods)!
hcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation!
huncine hominem (Verr. 5.62), this man, good heavens! [p. 248]
NOTE 1.Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
NOTE 2.The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusatives. Such are:
saltem (sc. dcit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
m dus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith).
unde mih lapidem (Hor. S. 2.7.116), where can I get a stone?
qu mihi fortnam (Hor. Ep. 1.5.12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb thought of.]
The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative:
intelleg t sapere (Fam. 7.32.3), I perceive that you are wise.
es rs iactr nlbat (B. G. 1.18), he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed.
NOTE.This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving ( 580).
The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition with a clause:
dserunt tribnal ... mans intentants, causam discordiae et initium armrum (Tac. Ann. 1.27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
NOTE.This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,Eumenem prdidre Antioch, pcis mercdem (Sall. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see 427.2; for the Accusative of Duration of Time and Extent of Space, see 423, 425; for the Accusative with Prepositions, see 220.
ABLATIVE CASE
Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms of three cases,the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM; the Locative, IN; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the development of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the phrases parte dexter, ON the right; quam ob causam, FROM which cause; ad fmam, AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in - of the fifth declension ( 96), and the loss of the original -d of the ablative ( 49. e; cf. 43. N.1, 92. f, 214. a. N.).
The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be attached)
187 is set forth in the following table: [p. 249]
|
I. Ablative Proper (from) (Separative): |
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want ( 400). |
|
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) ( 403). |
|
3. Of Cause (labr, exsili, etc.) ( 404). |
|
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) ( 405). |
|
5. Of Comparison (THAN) ( 406). |
|
II. Instrumental Ablative (with): |
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument ( 408 ff.). |
|
2. Of Object of the Deponents tor etc. ( 410). |
|
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) ( 413). |
|
4. Of Degree of Difference ( 414). |
|
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) ( 415). |
|
6. Of Price and Exchange ( 416). |
|
7. Of Specification ( 418). |
|
8. Ablative Absolute ( 419). |
|
III. Locative Ablative (in, on, at): |
1. Of Place where (commonly with in) ( 421). |
|
2. Of Time and Circumstance ( 423). |
The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:
lberre met, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrn, trained in learning.
hc ips tempore, at this very time.
caecus avriti, blind with avarice.
occsus gladi, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by the ablative.
Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex):
oculs s prvvit (Fin. 5.87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omn Galli Rmns interdcit (B. G. 1.46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
e aqu et gn interdcitur (Vell. 2.45), he is debarred the use of fire and water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
volupttibus carre (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
nn ege medicn (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
levmur superstitine, lbermur mortis met (Fin. 1.63), we are relieved from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
solt cupidittibus (Leg. Agr. 1.27), freed from desires.
mults ex hs incommods pecni s lbersse (Verr. 5.23), that many have freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see 356. N. [p. 250]
Verbs compounded with , ab, d, ex, (1) take the simple Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a preposition ( 426. 1):
(1) cnt dsistere (B. G. 1.8), to desist from the attempt.
dsine commnibus locs (Acad. 2.80), quit commonplaces.
abre magistrt, to leave one's office.
abstinre iniri, to refrain from wrong.
(2) prposit aberrre (Fin. 5.83), to wander from the point.
d prvinci dcdere (Verr. 2.48), to withdraw from one's province.
ab ire abre (id. 2.114), to go outside of the law.
ex cvitte excessre (B. G. 6.8), they departed from the state. [But cf. fnibus sus excesserant (id. 4.18), they had left their own territory.]
mgn dmissum nmen Il; (Aen. 1.288), a name descended (sent down) from great Iulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see 381. For the Ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see 427. 1, 428. f.
Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative:
urbs nda praesidi (Att. 7.13), the city naked of defence.
immnis mliti (Liv. 1.43), free of military service.
plbs orba tribns (Leg. 3.9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NOTE.A preposition sometimes occurs:
culp vacuus (Sall. Cat. 14), free from blame.
lber dlicis (Leg. Agr. 1.27), free from luxuries.
Messna ab hs rbus vacua atque nda est (Verr. 4.3), Messana is empty and bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists:
1. Source:
Rhnus oritur ex Lepontis (B. G. 4.10), the Rhine rises in (from) the country of the Lepontii.
ab hs serm oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cius ratinis vim atque tilittem ex ill caelest Epicr volmine accpimus (N. D. 1.43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suvittem odrum qu afflrentur flribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of the odors which breathed from the flowers. [p. 251]
2. Material:
erat ttus ex fraude et mendci factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood.
valvs mgnificentirs, ex aur atque ebore perfectirs (Verr. 4.124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum d cautibus antrum (Ov. M. 1.575), a cave formed of rocks.
templum d marmore pnam (Georg. 3.13), I'll build a temple of marble.
NOTE 1.In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NOTE 2.The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. For the Genitive of Material, see 344.
Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla tive of Source, generally without a preposition:
188
Iove ntus et Mi (N. D. 3.56), son of Jupiter and Maia.
dite rgibus (Hor. Od. 1.1.1), descendant of kings.
qu sanguine crtus (Aen. 2.74), born of what blood.
genitae Pandone (Ov. M. 6.666), daughters of Pandion.
NOTE 1.A preposition (ab, d, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors:
ex m hc ntus nn est sed ex frtre me; (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but my brother's (not born from me, etc.).
cum ex utrque [uxre] flius ntus esset (De Or. 1.183), each wife having had a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Blus et omns Bl (Aen. 1.730), Belus and all his descendants.
NOTE 2.Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, dsdervit C. Flegntem Placenti, A. Grnium Puteols (B. C. 3.71), he lost Caius Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
NOTE 3.The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as, Q. Verrem Rmili (Verr. 1.23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a preposition. Such are cnstre, cnsistere, and continr.
189 But with cnstre, ex is more common:
doms amoenits nn aedifici sed silv cnstbat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex anim cnstmus et corpore (Fin. 4.19), we consist of soul and body.
vta corpore et sprit contintur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, fier, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:
quid hc homine facitis (Verr. 2.1.42), what are you going to do with this man?
quid Tulliol me fet (Fam. 14.4.3), what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid t futrum est (Verr. 2.155), what will become of you? [p. 252]
The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun:
nn pauca pcula ex aur (Verr. 4.62), not a few cups of gold.
scopuls pendentibus antrum (Aen. 1.166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to express Cause:
190
neglegenti plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.
guberntris ars tilitte nn arte laudtur (Fin. 1.42), the pilot s skill is praised for its service, not its skill.
certs d causs, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. 2.38), disabled by (from) a wound.
mare sle lucet (Acad. 2.105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labr (also with ex), exsili, exsult, triumph, lacrim, rde:
dole t alis mals labrre (Fam. 4.3), I am sorry that you suffer with other ills. [Cf. ex aere alin labrre (B. C. 3.22), to labor under debt (from another's money).]
exsultre laetiti, triumphre gaudi coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilu gaudi (Fam. 16.16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrim gaudi (Ter. Ad. 409), I weep for joy.]
rdre dolre et r (Att. 2.19.5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaude and glrior, see 431.
The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is expressed by the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion often by ob
191 or propter with the accusative:
nn ob praedam aut spoliand cupdine (Tac. H. 1.63), not for booty or through lust of plunder.
amcitia ex s et propter s expetenda (Fin. 2.83), friendship must be sought of and for itself.
NOTE.But these constructions are often confused: as,prre lgibus propter metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equivalent to the terrors of the law, and hence propter is used, though the ablative would be more natural.] [p. 253]
The ablatives caus and grti, for the sake of, are used with a genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement:
e caus, on account of this; qu grti; (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?
me caus, for my sake; me grti; (Plaut.), for my sake.
ex me et re pblicae caus, for my own sake and the republic's.
praedictinis caus; (N. D. 3.5), by way of prophecy.
exempl grti; (verb grti), for example.
su prgnd grti, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NOTE.But grti with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Ablative with or ab:
laudtur ab hs, culptur ab ills (Hor. S. 1.2.11), he is praised by these, blamed by those.
ab anim tu quidquid agitur id agitur t (Tusc. 1.52), whatever is done by your soul is done by yourself.
flis in idicium voctus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum cnct cnsess plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great applause had been given by the whole audience.
n virts ab audci vincertur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne by audacity. [Audcia is in a manner personified.]
NOTE 1.This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NOTE 2.The ablative of the agent (which requires or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition ( 409). Thus occsus gladi, slain by a sword; but, occsus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
NOTE 3.The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intransitive verbs that have a passive sense:
perre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by oper with a genitive or possessive:
ab explrtribus certior factus est (B. G. 1.21), he was informed by scouts (in person). But,
per explrtrs Caesar certior factus est (id. 1.12), Csar was informed by (means of) scouts.
lautae oper Neptn (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of Neptune.
nn me oper vnit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). [Cf. ius oper, B. G. 5.27.] [p. 254]
NOTE 1.The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the ablative of agent, especially in military phrases: as,haec excubitribus tenbantur (B. G. 7.69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.
NOTE 2.An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, sometimes as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur:
equ veh, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equ.]
clipes mribus esse drss (Div. 1.99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see 374.
Ablative of Comparison
The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative
192 signifying than:
Cat est Cicerne loquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid nbs dubus labrisius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than we two?
vlius argentum est aur, virttibus aurum (Hor. Ep. 1.1.52), silver is less precious than gold, gold than virtue.
The idiomatic ablatives opnine, sp, solit, dict, aequ, crdibil, and ist are used after comparatives instead of a clause:
celerius opnine (Fam. 14.23), faster than one would think.
srius sp omnium (Liv. 26.26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all).
amnis solit cittior (id. 23.19.11), a stream swifter than its wont.
gravius aequ (Sall. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case<*>
nn callidior es quam hc (Rosc. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
cntinibus accommodtior est quam idicis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assemblies than for courts.
misericordi dgnior quam contumli (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of disgrace.
The construction with quam is required when the first of the things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1.There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement with a genitive, dative, or ablative: as,senex est e melire condicine quam adulscns (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause: as,minor fuit aliquant is qu prmus fbulam dedit quam e qu, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc. [p. 255]
NOTE 2.The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose construction requires quam: as,pne ege iam mellts potire placents (Hor. Ep. 1.10.11), I now want bread better than honey-cakes.
NOTE 3.Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this construction, but always the ablative: as,rx erat Aens nbs, qu istior alter nec, etc. (Aen. 1.544), neas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative:
nihil dtestbilius ddecore, nihil foedius servitte (Phil. 3.36), nothing is more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
nminem esse crirem t (Att. x. 8A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
After the comparatives pls, minus, amplius, longius, without quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in its case:
pls septingent capt; (Liv. 41.12), more than seven hundred were taken. [Nominative.]
pls terti parte interfect; (B. G. 3.6), more than a third part being slain. [Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in ltitdinem nn amplius ducentrum pedum relinqubtur (id. 2.29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. [Genitive of Measure: 345. b.]
NOTE.The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the comparative, which is in a sort of apposition: seven hundred were taken [and] more.
Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial use; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely by nisi, quam:
nec quicquam aliud lbertte commn; (Fam. 11.2), nothing else than the common liberty.
alius Lsipp (Hor. Ep. 2.1.240), another than Lysippus.
num aliud vidtur esse ac merum bonrum drepti; (Dom. 51), does it seem anything different from the plundering of my property?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annlium cnfecti; (De O<*>. 2.52), history was nothing else but a compiling of records.
The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry:
tempus t citius quam rti dficeret (Rosc. Am. 89), time would fail you sooner than words. But,
cur olvum sanguine vpern cautius vtat (Hor. Od. 1.8.9), why does he shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?
NOTE.Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supr) are sometimes used with a comparative: as,scelere ante alis immnior omns (Aen. 1.347), more monstrous in crime than all other men. [p. 256]
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instrumental Ablative (see 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus rbant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action:
certants pgns, calcibus, unguibus, mors dnique (Tusc. 5.77), fighting with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pgns et calcibus concsus esset (Verr. 3.56), when he had been pummelled with their fists and heels.
mes labribus interit rem pblicam lberv; (Sull. 33), by my toils I have saved the state from ruin.
multae istrum arborum me man sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those trees were set out with my own hands.
v victa vs, vel potius oppressa virtte audcia est (Mil. 30), violence was overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of filling, abounding, and the like:
Deus bons omnibus explvit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world with all good things.
aggere et crtibus fosss explent (B. G. 7.86), they fill up the ditches with earth and fascines.
ttum montem hominibus complvit (id. 1.24), he filled the whole mountain with men.
opmus praed (Verr. 2.1.132), rich with spoils.
vta plna et cnferta volupttibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights.
Forum App differtum nauts (Hor. S. 1.5.4), Forum Appii crammed with bargemen.
NOTE.In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Comple and imple sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf. 356); so regularly plnus and (with personal nouns) compltus and refertus ( 349. a):
omnia plna lcts et maerris furunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief and mourning.
llam dnrirum implre (Fam. 9.18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convvium vcnrum comple; (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the banquet with my neighbors.
cum compltus merctrum carcer esset (Verr. 5.147), when the prison was full of traders. [p. 257]
The deponents tor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several of their compounds,
193 govern the Ablative:
tar vestr bengnitte (Arch. 18), I will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salv r pblic vbscum perfru liceat (Cat. 4.11), so may I enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous.
fung inn mnere (Aen. 6.885), to perform an idle service.
aur hrs potitur (Ov. M. 7.156), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et fern carne vescbantur (Iug. 89), they fed on milk and game.
NOTE.This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are really in the middle voice ( 156. a). Thus tor with the ablative signifies I employ myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potri rrum, to get control or be master of affairs ( 357. a):
ttus Galliae ss potr posse sprant (B. G. 1.3), they hope they can get possession of the whole of Gaul.
NOTE 1.In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the accusative:
fnctus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
NOTE 2.The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the verb were transitive (but cf. 500. 3): as,Hracli omnia tenda ac possidenda trdiderat (Verr. 2.46), he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and possessed).
Opus and sus, signifying need, take the Ablative:
194
magistrtibus opus est (Leg. 3.5), there is need of magistrates.
nunc vribus sus (Aen. 8.441), now there is need of strength.
NOTE.The ablative with sus is not common in classic prose.
With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun:
opus est tu exprmpt maliti atque astti; (Ter. And. 723), I must have your best cunning and cleverness set to work.
propert opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
NOTE 1.So rarely with sus in comedy: as,quid ists sust cnscrpts (Pl. Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?
NOTE 2.The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions: as,quid opus factst (cf. B. G. 1.42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fier? with qu fact
